“katamā ca, bhikkhave, avijjā? yaṃ kho, bhikkhave, dukkhe aññāṇaṃ,
dukkhasamudaye aññāṇaṃ, dukkhanirodhe aññāṇaṃ, dukkhanirodhagāminiyā
paṭipadāya aññāṇaṃ. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, avijjā.

And what is ignorance? Not knowing suffering, not knowing the
origination of suffering, not knowing the cessation of suffering, not
knowing the way of practice leading to the cessation of suffering: This
is called ignorance.

Other definitions relating to the five khandhas can be found in the Khandha Saṃyutta.

—
“‘avijjā avijjā’ti, bhante, vuccati. katamā nu kho, bhante, avijjā, kittāvatā ca avijjāgato hotī”ti?

—
‘Ignorance, ignorance’, it is said, Bhante. What, Bhante, is ignorance, and to what extent is one immersed in ignorance?

—
“idha, bhikkhu, assutavā puthujjano rūpaṃ nappajānāti, rūpasamudayaṃ
nappajānāti, rūpanirodhaṃ nappajānāti, rūpanirodhagāminiṃ paṭipadaṃ
nappajānāti;

—
Here, bhikkhu, an uninstructed ordinary person does not understand
Form, does not understand the origin of Form, does not understand the
cessation of Form, does not understand the way leading to the cessation
of Form.

vedanaṃ nappajānāti, vedanāsamudayaṃ nappajānāti, vedanānirodhaṃ nappajānāti, vedanānirodhagāminiṃ paṭipadaṃ nappajānāti;

He does not understand
Feeling, does not understand the origin of Feeling, does not understand
the cessation of Feeling, does not understand the way leading to the
cessation of Feeling.

saññaṃ nappajānāti, saññāsamudayaṃ nappajānāti, saññānirodhaṃ nappajānāti, saññānirodhagāminiṃ paṭipadaṃ nappajānāti;

He does not understand
Perception, does not understand the origin of Perception, does not
understand the cessation of Perception, does not understand the way
leading to the cessation of Perception.

saṅkhāre nappajānāti, saṅkhārasamudayaṃ nappajānāti, saṅkhāranirodhaṃ
nappajānāti, saṅkhāranirodhagāminiṃ paṭipadaṃ nappajānāti;

He does not understand
Constructions, does not understand the origin of Constructions, does not
understand the cessation of Constructions, does not understand the way
leading to the cessation of Constructions.

viññāṇaṃ nappajānāti, viññāṇasamudayaṃ nappajānāti, viññāṇanirodhaṃ nappajānāti, viññāṇanirodhagāminiṃ paṭipadaṃ nappajānāti;

He does not understand
Consciousness, does not understand the origin of Consciousness, does not
understand the cessation of Consciousness, does not understand the way
leading to the cessation of Consciousness.

ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhu, avijjā. ettāvatā ca avijjāgato hotī”ti.

This, bhikkhu, is called ignorance, and it is to this extent that one is immersed in ignorance.

—
“‘avijjā avijjā’ti, bhante, vuccati. katamā nu kho, bhante, avijjā, kittāvatā ca avijjāgato hotī”ti?

—
‘Ignorance, ignorance’, it is said, Bhante. What, Bhante, is ignorance, and to what extent is one immersed in ignorance?

—
“idha, bhikkhu, assutavā puthujjano samudayadhammaṃ rūpaṃ
‘samudayadhammaṃ rūpan’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti; vayadhammaṃ rūpaṃ
‘vayadhammaṃ rūpan’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti; samudayavayadhammaṃ rūpaṃ
‘samudayavayadhammaṃ rūpan’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti.

—
Here, bhikkhu, an uninstructed ordinary person does not understand Form by nature subject to arising as it really is: ‘Form is by nature subject to arising’. He does not understand Form by nature subject to passing away as it really is: ‘Form is by nature subject to passing away’. He does not understand Form by nature subject to arising & passing away as it really is: ‘Form is by nature subject to arising & passing away’.

samudayadhammaṃ vedanaṃ ‘samudayadhammā vedanā’ti yathābhūtaṃ
nappajānāti; vayadhammaṃ vedanaṃ ‘vayadhammā vedanā’ti yathābhūtaṃ
nappajānāti; samudayavayadhammaṃ vedanaṃ ‘samudayavayadhammā vedanā’ti
yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti.

He does not understand Feeling by nature subject to arising as it really is: ‘Feeling is by nature subject to arising’. He does not understand Feeling by nature subject to passing away as it really is: ‘Feeling is by nature subject to passing away’. He does not understand Feeling by nature subject to arising & passing away as it really is: ‘Feeling is by nature subject to arising & passing away’.

samudayadhammaṃ saññaṃ ‘samudayadhammaṃ saññan’ti yathābhūtaṃ
nappajānāti; vayadhammaṃ saññaṃ ‘vayadhammaṃ saññan’ti yathābhūtaṃ
nappajānāti; samudayavayadhammaṃ saññaṃ ‘samudayavayadhammaṃ saññan’ti
yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti.

He does not understand Perception by nature subject to arising as it really is: ‘Perception is by nature subject to arising’. He does not understand Perception by nature subject to passing away as it really is: ‘Perception is by nature subject to passing away’. He does not understand Perception by nature subject to arising & passing away as it really is: ‘Perception is by nature subject to arising & passing away’.

samudayadhamme saṅkhāre ‘samudayadhammā saṅkhārā’ti yathābhūtaṃ
nappajānāti; vayadhamme saṅkhāre ‘vayadhammā saṅkhārā’ti yathābhūtaṃ
nappajānāti; samudayavayadhamme saṅkhāre ‘samudayavayadhammā saṅkhārā’ti
yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti.

He does not understand Constructions by nature subject to arising as it really is: ‘Constructions is by nature subject to arising’. He does not understand Constructions by nature subject to passing away as it really is: ‘Constructions is by nature subject to passing away’. He does not understand Constructions by nature subject to arising & passing away as it really is: ‘Constructions is by nature subject to arising & passing away’.

samudayadhammaṃ viññāṇaṃ ‘samudayadhammaṃ viññāṇan’ti yathābhūtaṃ
nappajānāti; vayadhammaṃ viññāṇaṃ ‘vayadhammaṃ viññāṇan’ti yathābhūtaṃ
nappajānāti; samudayavayadhammaṃ viññāṇaṃ ‘samudayavayadhammaṃ
viññāṇan’ti yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhu, avijjā;
ettāvatā ca avijjāgato hotī”ti.

He does not understand Consciousness by nature subject to arising as it really is: ‘Consciousness is by nature subject to arising’. He does not understand Consciousness by nature subject to passing away as it really is: ‘Consciousness is by nature subject to passing away’. He does not understand Consciousness by nature subject to arising & passing away as it really is: ‘Consciousness is by nature subject to arising & passing away’.

ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhu, avijjā. ettāvatā ca avijjāgato hotī”ti.

This, bhikkhu, is called ignorance, and it is to this extent that one is immersed in ignorance.

—
“‘avijjā avijjā’ti, bhante, vuccati. katamā nu kho, bhante, avijjā, kittāvatā ca avijjāgato hotī”ti?

—
‘Ignorance, ignorance’, it said, Bhante. What, Bhante, is ignorance, and to what extent is one immersed in ignorance?

—
“idhāvuso assutavā puthujjano rūpassa assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca
yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti, vedanāya assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca
yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti, saññāya assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca
yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti, saṅkhārānaṃ assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca
yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti, viññāṇassa assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca
yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti.

—
Here, friend, an uninstructed ordinary person does not understand as it
really is the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to
Form, he does not understand as it really is the gratification, the
danger, and the escape in regard to Feeling, he does not understand as
it really is the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to
Perception, he does not understand as it really is the gratification,
the danger, and the escape in regard to Fabrications, he does not
understand as it really is the gratification, the danger, and the escape
in regard to Consciousness.

—
ayaṃ vuccatāvuso, avijjā; ettāvatā ca avijjāgato hotī”ti.

This, friend, is called ignorance, and it is to this extent that one is immersed in ignorance.

At SN 22.84, avijjā is likened to a ‘dense thicket’ (tibbo vanasaṇḍo) along the path to nibbāna. At MN 19, it is likened to a ‘decoy’ (okacara) set up by a hunter (Māra) in order to lure a herd of deers on a false path that will bring them calamity and disaster. At MN 105, avijjā is likened to a poison (visadosa) smeared on an arrow (salla) which has wounded someone. The arrow represents taṇhā, while the poison is spread out by chanda·rāga·byāpāda.

Avijjā is one of the three āsavas, along with kāma and bhava.

Avijjā is one of the four oghas (floods), as well as one of the four yogas (bonds), and is juxtaposed in both sets with kāma, bhava and diṭṭhi.

Avijjāyogo ca kathaṃ hoti? Idha, bhikkhave, ekacco channaṃ
phassāyatanānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca
nissaraṇañca yathā·bhūtaṃ nappajānāti. Tassa channaṃ phassāyatanānaṃ
samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathā·bhūtaṃ
appajānato yā chasu phassāyatanesu avijjā aññāṇaṃ sānuseti. Ayaṃ
vuccati, bhikkhave, avijjāyogo.

“And how is there the yoke of ignorance? There is the case where a
certain person does not discern, as it actually is present, the
origination, the passing away, the allure, the drawbacks, & the
escape from the six sense media. When he does not discern, as it
actually is present, the origination, the passing away, the allure, the
drawbacks, & the escape from the six sense media, then — with regard
to ignorance concerning the six sense media — he is obsessed with
not-knowing. This is the yoke of ignorance.

Avijjā is one of the uddhambhāgiyā saṃyojanā (higher fetters), along with rūpa·rāga, arūpa·rāga, māna, and uddhacca.

Avijjā is also the last of the seven anusayas, along with kāma·rāga, paṭigha, diṭṭhi, vicikiccha, māna and bhava·rāga. As an anusaya, avijjā is related to adukkham·asukhā vedanā:

adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya phuṭṭho samāno tassā vedanāya samudayañca
atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti.
tassa avijjānusayo anuseti.

If, when touched by a feeling of neither pleasure nor pain, one does not
discern, as it actually is present, the origination, passing away,
allure, drawback, or escape from that feeling, then one’s
ignorance-obsession gets obsessed.

“adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo anusetī”ti…

Ignorance-obsession gets obsessed with neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling…

“sabbāya adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo anusetī”ti?…

Does ignorance-obsession get obsessed with all neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling?…

“na sabbāya adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo anusetī”ti…

No, ignorance-obsession does not get obsessed with all neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling…

“adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya kiṃ pahātabban”ti?…

What is to be abandoned with regard to neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling?…

“adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo pahātabbo”ti…

Ignorance-obsession is to be abandoned with regard to neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling…

“sabbāya adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo pahātabbo”ti?…

Is ignorance-obsession to be abandoned with regard to all neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling?…

na sabbāya adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo pahātabbo…

No, ignorance-obsession is not to be abandoned with regard to all neither-pleasant-nor-painful feeling…

idhāvuso visākha, bhikkhu sukhassa ca pahānā, dukkhassa ca pahānā,
pubbeva somanassadomanassānaṃ atthaṅgamā, adukkhamasukhaṃ
upekkhāsatipārisuddhiṃ catutthaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati. avijjaṃ
tena pajahati, na tattha avijjānusayo anusetī”ti.

There is the case where a monk, with the abandoning of pleasure &
pain — as with the earlier disappearance of elation & distress —
enters & remains in the fourth jhana: purity of equanimity &
mindfulness, neither pleasure nor pain. With that he abandons ignorance.
No ignorance-obsession gets obsessed there.

Avijjā is also related to ‘that which is felt born of contact with ignorance’ (avijjā·samphassa·ja vedayita):

atthi, bhikkhave, mano, atthi dhammā, atthi avijjādhātu.
avijjāsamphassajena, bhikkhave, vedayitena phuṭṭhassa assutavato
puthujjanassa ‘asmī’tipissa hoti; ‘ayamahamasmī’tipissa hoti;
‘bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘na bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘rūpī
bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘arūpī bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘saññī
bhavissan’tipissa hoti; ‘asaññī bhavissan’tipissa hoti;
‘nevasaññīnāsaññī bhavissan’tipissa hoti”.

Now, there is the intellect, there are ideas (mental qualities), there
is the property of ignorance. To an uninstructed run-of-the-mill person,
touched by experience born of the contact of ignorance, there occur
(the thoughts): ‘I am,’ ‘I am thus,’ ‘I shall be,’ ‘I shall not be,’ ‘I
shall be possessed of form,’ ‘I shall be formless,’ ‘I shall be
percipient (conscious),’ ‘I shall be non-percipient,’ or ‘I shall be
neither percipient nor non-percipient.’

“tiṭṭhanteva kho, bhikkhave, tattheva pañcindriyāni. athettha sutavato
ariyasāvakassa avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjati. tassa avijjāvirāgā
vijjuppādā ‘asmī’tipissa na hoti; ‘ayamahamasmī’tipissa na hoti;
‘bhavissan’tipissa na hoti; ‘na bhavissan’tipissa na hoti; ‘rūpī
bhavissan’tipissa na hoti; ‘arūpī bhavissan’tipissa na hoti; ‘saññī
bhavissan’tipissa na hoti; ‘asaññī bhavissan’tipissa na hoti;
‘nevasaññīnāsaññībhavissan’tipissa na hotī”ti.

The five faculties, monks, continue as they were. And with regard to
them the well-instructed disciple of the noble ones abandons ignorance
and gives rise to clear knowing. Owing to the fading of ignorance and
the arising of clear knowing, (the thoughts) — ‘I am,’ ‘I am this,’ ‘I
shall be,’ ‘I shall not be,’ ‘I shall be possessed of form,’ ‘I shall be
formless,’ ‘I shall be percipient (conscious),’ ‘I shall be
non-percipient,’ and ‘I shall be neither percipient nor non-percipient’ —
do not occur to him.

avijjāsamphassajena, bhikkhave, vedayitena phuṭṭhassa assutavato puthujjanassa uppannā taṇhā

To an uninstructed, run-of-the-mill person, touched by that which is felt born of contact with ignorance, craving arises.

At AN 3.67, avijjā is explained as having moha for synonym, although it is arguable that, given the position of avijjā among the anusayas, it would refer to a deeper type of mental factor related to ignorance, that may not be active all the time, of which moha would be the active expression through delusion.

Avijjā is also the root cause in paṭicca·samuppāda, giving rise to saṅkhāras. As mentioned above, the term is defined in this context at SN 12.2 as not knowing the four ariya·saccas. The role that avijjā plays in regard to other akusala dhammas is also referred to outside of the context of paṭicca·samuppāda:

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, kūṭāgārassa yā kāci gopānasiyo sabbā tā
kūṭaṅgamā kūṭasamosaraṇā kūṭasamugghātā sabbā tā samugghātaṃ gacchanti;
evameva kho, bhikkhave, ye keci akusalā dhammā sabbe te avijjāmūlakā
avijjāsamosaraṇā avijjāsamugghātā, sabbe te samugghātaṃ gacchanti.

Just as the rafters in a peak-roofed house all go to the roof-peak,
incline to the roof-peak, converge at the roof-peak, and all are removed
when the
roof-peak is removed; in the same way, all unwholesome qualities are
rooted in
ignorance and converge upon ignorance, and all are removed when
ignorance is removed.

“avijjā, bhikkhave, pubbaṅgamā akusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ samāpattiyā,
anvadeva ahirikaṃ anottappaṃ. avijjāgatassa, bhikkhave, aviddasuno
micchādiṭṭhi pahoti; micchādiṭṭhissa micchāsaṅkappo pahoti;
micchāsaṅkappassa micchāvācā pahoti; micchāvācassa micchākammanto
pahoti; micchākammantassa micchāājīvo pahoti; micchāājīvassa
micchāvāyāmo pahoti; micchāvāyāmassa micchāsati pahoti; micchāsatissa
micchāsamādhi pahoti.

Monks, ignorance is the leader in the attainment of unskillful
qualities, followed by lack of conscience & lack of concern. In an
unknowledgeable person, immersed in ignorance, wrong view arises. In one
of wrong view, wrong resolve arises. In one of wrong resolve, wrong
speech arises. In one of wrong speech, wrong action arises. In one of
wrong action, wrong livelihood arises. In one of wrong livelihood, wrong
effort arises. In one of wrong effort, wrong mindfulness arises. In one
of wrong mindfulness, wrong concentration arises.

Avijjā gives rise to āsavas:

“katamo ca, bhikkhave, āsavānaṃ nidānasambhavo? avijjā, bhikkhave, āsavānaṃ nidānasambhavo…

And what is the cause by which fermentations come into play? Ignorance is the cause by which fermentations come into play…

“katamo ca, bhikkhave, āsavanirodho? avijjānirodho, bhikkhave, āsavanirodho.

And what is the cessation of fermentations? From the cessation of ignorance is the cessation of fermentations

As we will see below, the relationship between avijjā and āsavas is reciprocal. Avijjā is also specificly said to give rise to craving:

avijjānivutā posā, piyarūpābhinandino.

Men hindered by ignorance
seek delight in pleasant things

“bhavataṇhāmpāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sāhāraṃ vadāmi, no anāhāraṃ. ko cāhāro bhavataṇhāya? ‘avijjā’tissa vacanīyaṃ.

I say, bhikkhus, that craving for existence has a nutriment; it is not
without nutriment. And what is the nutriment for craving for existence?
It should be said: ignorance.

Avijjā appears due to specific factors. The five nīvaraṇas:

“purimā, bhikkhave, koṭi na paññāyati avijjāya: ‘ito pubbe avijjā
nāhosi, atha pacchā samabhavī’ti. evañcetaṃ, bhikkhave, vuccati, atha ca
pana paññāyati: ‘idappaccayā avijjā’ti. avijjampāhaṃ, bhikkhave,
sāhāraṃ vadāmi, no anāhāraṃ. ko cāhāro avijjāya? ‘pañca nīvaraṇā’tissa
vacanīyaṃ.

Bhikkhus, this is said: ‘A first point of ignorance, bhikkhus, is not
seen such that before this there was no ignorance and afterward it came
into being.’ Still, ignorance is seen to have a specific condition. I
say, bhikkhus, that ignorance has a nutriment; it is not without
nutriment. And what is the nutriment for ignorance? It should be said:
the five hindrances.

Ayoniso manasikāra:

“katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā na manasikaraṇīyā ye dhamme manasi karoti?
yassa, bhikkhave, dhamme manasikaroto anuppanno vā kāmāsavo uppajjati,
uppanno vā kāmāsavo pavaḍḍhati; anuppanno vā bhavāsavo uppajjati,
uppanno vā bhavāsavo pavaḍḍhati; anuppanno vā avijjāsavo uppajjati,
uppanno vā avijjāsavo pavaḍḍhati. ime dhammā na manasikaraṇīyā ye dhamme
manasi karoti…

And what are the ideas unfit for attention that he attends to? Whatever
ideas such that, when he attends to them, the unarisen fermentation of
sensuality arises in him, and the arisen fermentation of sensuality
increases; the unarisen fermentation of becoming arises in him, and
arisen fermentation of becoming increases; the unarisen fermentation of
ignorance arises in him, and the arisen fermentation of ignorance
increases. These are the ideas unfit for attention that he attends to…

“so evaṃ ayoniso manasi karoti: ‘ahosiṃ nu kho ahaṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? na
nu kho ahosiṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ nu kho ahosiṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? kathaṃ
nu kho ahosiṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ hutvā kiṃ ahosiṃ nu kho ahaṃ
atītamaddhānaṃ? bhavissāmi nu kho ahaṃ anāgatamaddhānaṃ? na nu kho
bhavissāmi anāgatamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ nu kho bhavissāmi anāgatamaddhānaṃ?
kathaṃ nu kho bhavissāmi anāgatamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ hutvā kiṃ bhavissāmi nu
kho ahaṃ anāgatamaddhānan’ti? etarahi vā paccuppannamaddhānaṃ ajjhattaṃ
kathaṃkathī hoti: ‘ahaṃ nu khosmi? no nu khosmi? kiṃ nu khosmi? kathaṃ
nu khosmi? ayaṃ nu kho satto kuto āgato? so kuhiṃ gāmī bhavissatī’ti?

“This is how he attends inappropriately: ‘Was I in the past? Was I not
in the past? What was I in the past? How was I in the past? Having been
what, what was I in the past? Shall I be in the future? Shall I not be
in the future? What shall I be in the future? How shall I be in the
future? Having been what, what shall I be in the future?’ Or else he is
inwardly perplexed about the immediate present: ‘Am I? Am I not? What am
I? How am I? Where has this being come from? Where is it bound?’

“tassa evaṃ ayoniso manasikaroto channaṃ diṭṭhīnaṃ aññatarā diṭṭhi
uppajjati. ‘atthi me attā’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati;
‘natthi me attā’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati; ‘attanāva
attānaṃ sañjānāmī’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati; ‘attanāva
anattānaṃ sañjānāmī’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati;
‘anattanāva attānaṃ sañjānāmī’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi
uppajjati; atha vā panassa evaṃ diṭṭhi hoti: ‘yo me ayaṃ attā vado
vedeyyo tatra tatra kalyāṇapāpakānaṃ kammānaṃ vipākaṃ paṭisaṃvedeti so
kho pana me ayaṃ attā nicco dhuvo sassato avipariṇāmadhammo sassatisamaṃ
tatheva ṭhassatī’ti. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, diṭṭhigataṃ diṭṭhigahanaṃ
diṭṭhikantāraṃ diṭṭhivisūkaṃ diṭṭhivipphanditaṃ diṭṭhisaṃyojanaṃ.
diṭṭhisaṃyojanasaṃyutto, bhikkhave, assutavā puthujjano na parimuccati
jātiyā jarāya maraṇena sokehi paridevehi dukkhehi domanassehi upāyāsehi;
‘na parimuccati dukkhasmā’ti vadāmi.

“As he attends inappropriately in this way, one of six kinds of view
arises in him: The view I have a self arises in him as true &
established, or the view I have no self… or the view It is precisely
by means of self that I perceive self… or the view It is precisely by
means of self that I perceive not-self… or the view It is precisely by
means of not-self that I perceive self arises in him as true &
established, or else he has a view like this: This very self of mine —
the knower that is sensitive here & there to the ripening of good
& bad actions — is the self of mine that is constant, everlasting,
eternal, not subject to change, and will stay just as it is for
eternity. This is called a thicket of views, a wilderness of views, a
contortion of views, a writhing of views, a fetter of views. Bound by a
fetter of views, the uninstructed run-of-the-mill person is not freed
from birth, aging, & death, from sorrow, lamentation, pain,
distress, & despair. He is not freed, I tell you, from suffering
& stress.

Āsavas:

āsavasamudayā avijjāsamudayo, āsavanirodhā avijjānirodho

With the arising of the taints there is the arising of
ignorance. With the cessation of the taints there is the cessation of
ignorance.

A number of factors leading to the cessation of avijjā are also mentioned in the suttas. Kāyagatāsati:

“ekadhamme, bhikkhave, bhāvite bahulīkate avijjā pahīyati. katamasmiṃ ekadhamme? kāyagatāya satiyā.

When one thing, bhikkhus, is developed and cultivated, ignorance is abandoned. Which thing? Mindfulness directed to the body.

Anicca·saññā:

“aniccasaññā, bhikkhave, bhāvitā bahulīkatā sabbaṃ kāmarāgaṃ
pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ rūparāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ bhavarāgaṃ
pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ avijjaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanati”.

Bhikkhus, when the perception of impermanence is developed and
cultivated, it eliminates all sensual lust, it eliminates all lust for
existence, it eliminates all ignorance, it uproots all conceit ‘I am.’

…

…

“kathaṃ bhāvitā ca, bhikkhave, aniccasaññā kathaṃ bahulīkatā sabbaṃ
kāmarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ rūparāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ bhavarāgaṃ
pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ avijjaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanati?
‘iti rūpaṃ, iti rūpassa samudayo, iti rūpassa atthaṅgamo; iti vedanā,
iti vedanāya samudayo, iti vedanāya atthaṅgamo; iti saññā, iti saññāya
samudayo, iti saññāya atthaṅgamo; iti saṅkhārā, iti saṅkhārānaṃ
samudayo, iti saṅkhārānaṃ atthaṅgamo; iti viññāṇaṃ, iti viññāṇassa
samudayo, iti viññāṇassa atthaṅgamo’ti. evaṃ bhāvitā kho, bhikkhave,
aniccasaññā evaṃ bahulīkatā sabbaṃ kāmarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ
rūparāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ bhavarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ avijjaṃ
pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanatī”ti.

And how, bhikkhus, is the perception of impermanence developed and
cultivated so that it eliminates all sensual lust, eliminates all lust
for existence, eliminates all ignorance, and uproots all conceit ‘I am’?
‘Such is form, such its origin, such its passing away; such is feeling,
such its origin, such its passing away; such is perception, such its
origin, such its passing away; such are volitional formations, such
their origin, such their passing away; such is consciousness, such its
origin, such its passing away’: that is how the perception of
impermanence is developed and cultivated so that it eliminates all
sensual lust, eliminates all lust for existence, eliminates all
ignorance, and uproots all conceit ‘I am.’

—
“katamo pana, bhante, eko dhammo yassa pahānā bhikkhuno avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjatī”ti?

—
“And what is that one thing, venerable sir, through the abandoning of
which ignorance is abandoned by a bhikkhu and true knowledge
arises?”

—
“avijjā kho, bhikkhu, eko dhammo yassa pahānā bhikkhuno avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjatī”ti.

—
“Ignorance, bhikkhu, is that one thing through the abandoning of
which ignorance is abandoned by a bhikkhu and true knowledgearises.”

—
“kathaṃ pana, bhante, jānato, kathaṃ passato bhikkhuno avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjatī”ti?

—
“But, venerable sir, how should one know, how should one
see, for ignorance to be abandoned by him and true knowledge to
arise?”

—
“cakkhuṃ kho, bhikkhu, aniccato jānato passato avijjā pahīyati, vijjā
uppajjati. rūpe aniccato jānato passato avijjā pahīyati, vijjā
uppajjati. cakkhuviññāṇaṃ… cakkhusamphassaṃ… yampidaṃ
cakkhusamphassapaccayā uppajjati vedayitaṃ sukhaṃ vā dukkhaṃ vā
adukkhamasukhaṃ vā tampi aniccato jānato passato avijjā pahīyati, vijjā
uppajjati.
sotaṃ… sadde… sotaviññāṇaṃ… sotasamphassaṃ… yampidaṃ
sotasamphassapaccayā uppajjati…
ghānaṃ… gandhe… ghānaviññāṇaṃ… ghānasamphassaṃ… yampidaṃ
ghānasamphassapaccayā uppajjati…
jivhaṃ… rase… jivhaviññāṇaṃ… jivhasamphassaṃ… yampidaṃ
jivhasamphassapaccayā uppajjati…
kāyaṃ… phoṭṭhabbe… kāyaviññāṇaṃ… kāyasamphassaṃ… yampidaṃ
kāyasamphassapaccayā uppajjati…
manaṃ… dhamme… manoviññāṇaṃ… manosamphassaṃ… yampidaṃ
manosamphassapaccayā uppajjati… vedayitaṃ sukhaṃ vā dukkhaṃ vā
adukkhamasukhaṃ vā tampi aniccato jānato passato avijjā pahīyati, vijjā
uppajjati. evaṃ kho, bhikkhu, jānato evaṃ passato avijjā pahīyati, vijjā
uppajjatī”ti.

—
“Bhikkhu, when one knows and sees the eye as impermanent, ignorance is
abandoned and true knowledge arises. When one knows and sees forms as
impermanent … When one knows and sees eye-consciousness…
eye-contact… whatever feeling arises with eye-contact as
condition—whether pleasant or painful or neither-painful-norpleasant…
the ear… sounds… ear-consciousness… ear-contact… whatever
feeling arises with ear-contact…
the nose… smells… nose-consciousness… nose-contact… whatever
feeling arises with nose-contact…
the tongue… tastes… tongue-consciousness… tongue-contact…
whatever feeling arises with tongue-contact… the body… touches…
body-consciousness… body-contact… whatever feeling arises with
body-contact…
the mind… mental objects… mind-consciousness… mind-contact… When
one knows and sees as impermanent whatever feeling arises with
mind-contact as condition—whether pleasant or painful or
neither-painful-norpleasant—ignorance is abandoned and true knowledge
arises. When one knows and sees thus, bhikkhu, ignorance is abandoned
and true knowledge arises.”

“kathaṃ pana, bhante, jānato, kathaṃ passato avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjatī”ti?

“But, venerable sir, how should one know, how should one
see, for ignorance to be abandoned by him and true knowledge to
arise?”

“idha, bhikkhu, bhikkhuno sutaṃ hoti: ‘sabbe dhammā nālaṃ
abhinivesāyā’ti. evañcetaṃ, bhikkhu, bhikkhuno sutaṃ hoti: ‘sabbe dhammā
nālaṃ abhinivesāyā’ti, so sabbaṃ dhammaṃ abhijānāti, sabbaṃ dhammaṃ
abhiññāya sabbaṃ dhammaṃ parijānāti, sabbaṃ dhammaṃ pariññāya
sabbanimittāni aññato passati, cakkhuṃ aññato passati, rūpe…
cakkhuviññāṇaṃ… cakkhusamphassaṃ… yampidaṃ cakkhusamphassapaccayā
uppajjati vedayitaṃ sukhaṃ vā dukkhaṃ vā adukkhamasukhaṃ vā tampi aññato
passati…
sotaṃ… sadde… sotaviññāṇaṃ… sotasamphassaṃ… yampidaṃ
sotasamphassapaccayā uppajjati…
ghānaṃ… gandhe… ghānaviññāṇaṃ… ghānasamphassaṃ… yampidaṃ
ghānasamphassapaccayā uppajjati…
jivhaṃ… rase… jivhaviññāṇaṃ… jivhasamphassaṃ… yampidaṃ
jivhasamphassapaccayā uppajjati…
kāyaṃ… phoṭṭhabbe… kāyaviññāṇaṃ… kāyasamphassaṃ… yampidaṃ
kāyasamphassapaccayā uppajjati…
manaṃ aññato passati, dhamme… manoviññāṇaṃ… manosamphassaṃ…
yampidaṃ manosamphassapaccayā uppajjati vedayitaṃ sukhaṃ vā dukkhaṃ vā
adukkhamasukhaṃ vā tampi aññato passati. evaṃ kho, bhikkhu, jānato evaṃ
passato bhikkhuno avijjā pahīyati, vijjā uppajjatī”ti.

“Here, bhikkhu, a bhikkhu has heard, ‘Nothing is worth adhering
to.’ When a bhikkhu has heard, ‘Nothing is worth adhering to,’ he
directly knows everything. Having directly known everything, he
fully understands everything. Having fully understood everything, he
sees all signs differently. He sees the eye differently, he sees forms
differently… eye-consciousness… eye-contact… whatever feeling
arises with eye-contact…
the nose… smells… nose-consciousness… nose-contact… whatever
feeling arises with nose-contact…
the tongue… tastes… tongue-consciousness… tongue-contact…
whatever feeling arises with tongue-contact… the body… touches…
body-consciousness… body-contact… whatever feeling arises with
body-contact…
the mind… mental objects… mind-consciousness… mind-contact…
whatever feeling arises with mind-contact as condition
… that too he sees differently. When one knows and sees thus, bhikkhu,
ignorance is abandoned and true knowledge arises.”

Samādhi:

“chahi, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato bhikkhu himavantaṃ pabbatarājaṃ
padāleyya, ko pana vādo chavāya avijjāya! katamehi chahi?

“Bhikkhus, possessing six qualities, a bhikkhu could break the
Himalayas, the king of mountains, how much more then [that] low
ignorance! What six?

idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu samādhissa samāpattikusalo hoti,

Here, a bhikkhu is skilled in attaining of concentration;

samādhissa ṭhitikusalo hoti,

skilled in maintaining
concentration;

samādhissa vuṭṭhānakusalo hoti,

skilled in emerging from concentration;

samādhissa kallitakusalo hoti,

skilled in fitness for concentration;

samādhissa gocarakusalo hoti,

skilled in the area of
concentration;

samādhissa abhinīhārakusalo hoti.

skilled in resolution regarding
concentration.

Paññā:

vipassanā, bhikkhave, bhāvitā kamatthamanubhoti? paññā bhāvīyati. paññā bhāvitā kamatthamanubhoti? yā avijjā sā pahīyati.

When insight is developed, what purpose does it serve? Discernment is
developed. And when discernment is developed, what purpose does it
serve? Ignorance is abandoned.

Abhiññā:

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā? avijjā ca bhavataṇhā ca

What, monks, are the states to be abandoned with higher knowledge? They are ignorance and the desire for [further] becoming.

Cultivating appamāda and being ātāpī:

ayaṃ kho me, brāhmaṇa, rattiyā paṭhame yāme paṭhamā vijjā adhigatā,
avijjā vihatā vijjā uppannā, tamo vihato āloko uppanno, yathā taṃ
appamattassa ātāpino pahitattassa viharato.

This was the first knowledge I attained in the first watch of the night.
Ignorance was destroyed; knowledge arose; darkness was destroyed; light
arose — as happens in one who is heedful, ardent, & resolute.

āvuso: friend - usually in conversation between
bhikkhus, a form of polite address ‘friend, brother Sir’, although quite
informal since it is used by the disciple as well as the master in
return.

āyasmā: venerable - lit: old. Used as a respectful appellation of a bhikkhu of some standing.

āyatana: sphere, stretch, extent, reach, sphere of perception. The word appears mainly in two contexts:

1) as refering both to the six physical sense organs, i.e. cakkhu, sota, ghāna, jivhā, kāya, mana, as well as to their respective objects, i.e. rūpa visible objects, sadda sounds, gandha smells, rasa tastes, phoṭṭhabba tangible bodily phenomena, dhamma mental phenomena.

2) to designate each of the four formless jhānas.

ayoniso manasikāra:

inappropiate attention, unwise reflection.

The most substantial characterization of ayoniso manasikāra is provided in the Sabbāsavā Sutta:

“so evaṃ ayoniso manasi karoti: ‘ahosiṃ nu kho ahaṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? na
nu kho ahosiṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ nu kho ahosiṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? kathaṃ
nu kho ahosiṃ atītamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ hutvā kiṃ ahosiṃ nu kho ahaṃ
atītamaddhānaṃ? bhavissāmi nu kho ahaṃ anāgatamaddhānaṃ? na nu kho
bhavissāmi anāgatamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ nu kho bhavissāmi anāgatamaddhānaṃ?
kathaṃ nu kho bhavissāmi anāgatamaddhānaṃ? kiṃ hutvā kiṃ bhavissāmi nu
kho ahaṃ anāgatamaddhānan’ti? etarahi vā paccuppannamaddhānaṃ ajjhattaṃ
kathaṃkathī hoti: ‘ahaṃ nu khosmi? no nu khosmi? kiṃ nu khosmi? kathaṃ
nu khosmi? ayaṃ nu kho satto kuto āgato? so kuhiṃ gāmī bhavissatī’ti?

This is how he attends inappropriately: ‘Was I in the past? Was I not in
the past? What was I in the past? How was I in the past? Having been
what, what was I in the past? Shall I be in the future? Shall I not be
in the future? What shall I be in the future? How shall I be in the
future? Having been what, what shall I be in the future?’ Or else he is
inwardly perplexed about the immediate present: ‘Am I? Am I not? What am
I? How am I? Where has this being come from? Where is it bound?’

“tassa evaṃ ayoniso manasikaroto channaṃ diṭṭhīnaṃ aññatarā diṭṭhi
uppajjati. ‘atthi me attā’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati;
‘natthi me attā’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati; ‘attanāva
attānaṃ sañjānāmī’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati; ‘attanāva
anattānaṃ sañjānāmī’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi uppajjati;
‘anattanāva attānaṃ sañjānāmī’ti vā assa saccato thetato diṭṭhi
uppajjati; atha vā panassa evaṃ diṭṭhi hoti: ‘yo me ayaṃ attā vado
vedeyyo tatra tatra kalyāṇapāpakānaṃ kammānaṃ vipākaṃ paṭisaṃvedeti so
kho pana me ayaṃ attā nicco dhuvo sassato avipariṇāmadhammo sassatisamaṃ
tatheva ṭhassatī’ti. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, diṭṭhigataṃ diṭṭhigahanaṃ
diṭṭhikantāraṃ diṭṭhivisūkaṃ diṭṭhivipphanditaṃ diṭṭhisaṃyojanaṃ.
diṭṭhisaṃyojanasaṃyutto, bhikkhave, assutavā puthujjano na parimuccati
jātiyā jarāya maraṇena sokehi paridevehi dukkhehi domanassehi upāyāsehi;
‘na parimuccati dukkhasmā’ti vadāmi.

As he attends inappropriately in this way, one of six kinds of view
arises in him: The view I have a self arises in him as true &
established, or the view I have no self… or the view It is precisely
by means of self that I perceive self… or the view It is precisely by
means of self that I perceive not-self… or the view It is precisely by
means of not-self that I perceive self arises in him as true &
established, or else he has a view like this: This very self of mine —
the knower that is sensitive here & there to the ripening of good
& bad actions — is the self of mine that is constant, everlasting,
eternal, not subject to change, and will stay just as it is for
eternity. This is called a thicket of views, a wilderness of views, a
contortion of views, a writhing of views, a fetter of views. Bound by a
fetter of views, the uninstructed run-of-the-mill person is not freed
from birth, aging, & death, from sorrow, lamentation, pain,
distress, & despair. He is not freed, I tell you, from suffering
& stress.

According to the commentary, ayoniso manasikāra
is attention or reflection that constitutes the wrong means or the
wrong track (uppatha), that is contrary to the truth, as for example the
vipallāsas:
attention to the impermanent as permanent, the unpleasant as pleasant,
what is not self as self, and what is foul as beautiful.

The Akusalavitakka Sutta also provides a connection with the wrong type of vitakkas:

ekaṃ samayaṃ aññataro bhikkhu kosalesu viharati aññatarasmiṃ vanasaṇḍe.
tena kho pana samayena so bhikkhu divāvihāragato pāpake akusale vitakke
vitakketi, seyyathidaṃ kāmavitakkaṃ, byāpādavitakkaṃ, vihiṃsāvitakkaṃ.
atha kho yā tasmiṃ vanasaṇḍe adhivatthā devatā tassa bhikkhuno
anukampikā atthakāmā taṃ bhikkhuṃ saṃvejetukāmā yena so bhikkhu
tenupasaṅkami; upasaṅkamitvā taṃ bhikkhuṃ gāthāhi ajjhabhāsi:

On one occasion a certain monk was dwelling among the Kosalans in a
forest thicket. Now at that time, he spent the day’s abiding thinking
evil, unskillful thoughts: i.e., thoughts of sensuality, thoughts of ill
will, thoughts of doing harm. Then the devata inhabiting the forest
thicket, feeling sympathy for the monk, desiring his benefit, desiring
to bring him to his senses, approached him and addressed him with this
verse:

“ayoniso manasikārā, so vitakkehi khajjasi.

From inappropriate attention, you’re being chewed by your thoughts.

At AN 5.151, ayoniso manasikāra is juxtaposed with an·ekagga·citta (see ekagga·tā for an antonym) in one single item as an attitude preventing one who listens to the Dhamma from realizing it.

Ayoniso manasikāra prevents wholesome states from arising:

The seven bojjhaṅgas:

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannā vā
bojjhaṅgā nuppajjanti uppannā vā bojjhaṅgā na bhāvanāpāripūriṃ gacchanti
yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, ayonisomanasikāro.

Bhikkhus, I do not see any other thing because of which unarisen factors
of awakening do not arise and arisen factors of enlightenment do not go
to their completion through development so much as inappropriate
attention.

Sati·sampajañña:

asatāsampajaññampāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sāhāraṃ vadāmi, no anāhāraṃ. ko cāhāro
asatāsampajaññassa? ‘ayonisomanasikāro’’tissa vacanīyaṃ.

Lack of mindfulness and clear comprehension, too, I say, has a
nutriment; it is not without nutriment. And what is the nutriment for
lack of mindfulness and clear comprehension? It should be said: careless
attention.

Ayoniso manasikāra also gives rise to other akusala dhammas:

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannā vā
akusalā dhammā uppajjanti uppannā vā kusalā dhammā parihāyanti
yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, ayonisomanasikāro.

Bhikkhus, I do not see any other thing because of which unarisen
unwholesome states arise and arisen wholesome states decline, so much as
inappropriate attention.

In particular, in conjunction with other phenomena, it gives rise to the five nīvaraṇas:

ko ca, bhikkhave, āhāro anuppannassa vā kāmacchandassa uppādāya,
uppannassa vā kāmacchandassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya? atthi, bhikkhave,
subhanimittaṃ. tattha ayonisomanasikārabahulīkāro: ayamāhāro
anuppannassa vā kāmacchandassa uppādāya, uppannassa vā kāmacchandassa
bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya.

And what is the food for the arising of unarisen sensual desire, or for
the growth & increase of sensual desire once it has arisen? There is
the theme of beauty. To foster inappropriate attention to it: This is
the food for the arising of unarisen sensual desire, or for the growth
& increase of sensual desire once it has arisen.

“ko ca, bhikkhave, āhāro anuppannassa vā byāpādassa uppādāya, uppannassa
vā byāpādassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya? atthi, bhikkhave,
paṭighanimittaṃ. tattha ayonisomanasikārabahulīkāro: ayamāhāro
anuppannassa vā byāpādassa uppādāya, uppannassa vā byāpādassa
bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya.

And what is the food for the arising of unarisen ill will, or for the
growth & increase of ill will once it has arisen? There is the theme
of resistance. To foster inappropriate attention to it: This is the
food for the arising of unarisen ill will, or for the growth &
increase of ill will once it has arisen.

“ko ca, bhikkhave, āhāro anuppannassa vā thinamiddhassa uppādāya,
uppannassa vā thinamiddhassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya? atthi, bhikkhave,
arati tandi vijambhitā bhattasammado cetaso ca līnattaṃ. tattha
ayonisomanasikārabahulīkāro: ayamāhāro anuppannassa vā thinamiddhassa
uppādāya, uppannassa vā thinamiddhassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya.

And what is the food for the arising of unarisen sloth & drowsiness,
or for the growth & increase of sloth & drowsiness once it has
arisen? There are boredom, weariness, yawning, drowsiness after a meal,
& sluggishness of awareness. To foster inappropriate attention to
them: This is the food for the arising of unarisen sloth &
drowsiness, or for the growth & increase of sloth & drowsiness
once it has arisen.

“ko ca, bhikkhave, āhāro anuppannassa vā uddhaccakukkuccassa uppādāya,
uppannassa vā uddhaccakukkuccassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya? atthi,
bhikkhave, cetaso avūpasamo. tattha ayonisomanasikārabahulīkāro:
ayamāhāro anuppannassa vā uddhaccakukkuccassa uppādāya, uppannassa vā
uddhaccakukkuccassa bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya.

And what is the food for the arising of unarisen restlessness &
anxiety, or for the growth & increase of restlessness & anxiety
once it has arisen? There is non-stillness of awareness. To foster
inappropriate attention to that: This is the food for the arising of
unarisen restlessness & anxiety, or for the growth & increase of
restlessness & anxiety once it has arisen.

When it comes to vicikicchā, ayoniso manasikāra is the cause per se:

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannā vā
vicikicchā uppajjati uppannā vā vicikicchā bhiyyobhāvāya vepullāya
saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, ayonisomanasikāro.

Bhikkhus, I do not see any other thing because of which unarisen doubt
arises and arisen doubt increases and multiplies, so much as
inappropriate attention.

Ayoniso manasikāra is also the direct cause for the arising of micchā·diṭṭhi:

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yena anuppannā vā
micchādiṭṭhi uppajjati uppannā vā micchādiṭṭhi pavaḍḍhati yathayidaṃ,
bhikkhave, ayonisomanasikāro.

Bhikkhus, I do not see any other thing because of which unarisen wrong
view arises and arisen wrong view increases and multiplies, so much as
inappropriate attention.

It generally leads to ‘great harm’ (mahato anatthāya):

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yo evaṃ mahato
anatthāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave, ayoniso manasikāro.

Bhikkhus, I do not see any other thing that leads to such great harm as inappropriate attention.

It leads particularly to the disappearance of the Dhamma (saddhammassa sammosāya antaradhānāya):

“nāhaṃ, bhikkhave, aññaṃ ekadhammampi samanupassāmi yo evaṃ saddhammassa
sammosāya antaradhānāya saṃvattati yathayidaṃ, bhikkhave,
ayonisomanasikāro.

Bhikkhus, I do not see any other thing that leads to the decline and
disappearance of the good Dhamma, so much as inappropriate attention.

According to AN 10.76, ayoniso manasikāra rests particularly on three phenomena: forgetfulness (muṭṭhasacca), lack of sampajañña, and mental unrest (cetaso vikkhepa).

bala:

power, strength.

The word is used in a wide variety of meanings. In
the general sense, it means physical strength, healthiness, power or
authority (AN 3.69), sometimes intellectual authority (e.g. a powerful
argument, MN 11), moral strength, or determination (as in the compound
bala·vīriya).

♦ The most frequent list of balas is as follows:

Each item is defined in the Vitthata Sutta:

Pañc·imāni, bhikkhave, balāni. Katamāni pañca? Saddhā-balaṃ, vīriya-balaṃ, sati-balaṃ, samādhi-balaṃ, paññā-balaṃ.

There are, bhikkhus, these five powers. Which five? The power of
conviction, the power of persistence, the power of mindfulness, the
power of concentration, the power of discernment.

Katama·ñca, bhikkhave, saddhā-balaṃ? Idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako
saddho hoti, saddahati Tathāgatassa bodhiṃ:
‘itipi so Bhagavā arahaṃ sammā-Sambuddho vijjā-caraṇa-sampanno sugato
lokavidū anuttaro purisa-damma-sārathi satthā deva-manussānaṃ Buddho
Bhagavā’ ti.
Idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, saddhā-balaṃ.

Now what is the power of conviction? There is the case where a monk, a
disciple of the noble ones, has conviction, is convinced of the
Tathagata’s Awakening: ‘Indeed, the Blessed One is worthy and rightly
self-awakened, consummate in knowledge & conduct, well-gone, an
expert with regard to the world, unexcelled as a trainer for those
people fit to be tamed, the Teacher of divine & human beings,
awakened, blessed.’ This is called the power of conviction.

Katama·ñca, bhikkhave, vīriya-balaṃ? Idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako
āraddha-vīriyo viharati akusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ pahānāya, kusalānaṃ
dhammānaṃ upasampadāya thāmavā daḷhaparakkamo anikkhittadhuro kusalesu
dhammesu. Idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, vīriya-balaṃ.

And what is the power of persistence? There is the case where a disciple
of the noble ones keeps his persistence aroused for abandoning
unskillful mental qualities and taking on skillful mental qualities. He
is steadfast, solid in his effort, not shirking his duties with regard
to skillful mental qualities. This is called the power of persistence.

Katama·ñca, bhikkhave, sati-balaṃ? Idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako satimā
hoti paramena sati-nepakkena samannāgato, cira-katam-pi cira-bhāsitam-pi
saritā anussaritā. Idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, sati-balaṃ.

And what is the power of mindfulness? There is the case where a monk, a
disciple of the noble ones, is mindful, highly meticulous, remembering
& able to call to mind even things that were done & said long
ago. This is called the power of mindfulness.

Katama·ñca, bhikkhave, samādhi-balaṃ? Idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako…
paṭhamaṃ jhānaṃ… dutiyaṃ jhānaṃ… tatiyaṃ jhānaṃ… catutthaṃ jhānaṃ
upasampajja viharati.
Idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, samādhi-balaṃ.

And what is the power of concentration? There is the case where a
monk… enters & remains in the first jhana… the second jhan…
the third jhana… the fourth jhana… This is called the power of
concentration.

Katama·ñca, bhikkhave, paññā-balaṃ? Idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako paññavā
hoti uday-attha-gāminiyā paññāya samannāgato ariyāya nibbedhikāya sammā
dukkha’k'khaya-gāminiyā. Idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, paññā-balaṃ.

And what is the power of discernment? There is the case where a disciple
of the noble ones is discerning, endowed with discernment of arising
& passing away — noble, penetrating, leading to the right ending of
stress. This is called the power of discernment.

Alternative definitions of the power of energy and the power of wisdom as found at AN 9.5 will be provided below.

This group of five balas is part of a set of 37 dhammas which are sometimes listed together (e.g. at AN 10.90, SN 22.81). They are sometimes called the bodhipakkhiyā dhammā, although this expression doesn’t have a strict definition in the suttas and is loosely used to describe other sets.

In the Daṭṭhabba Sutta, it is said that these balas are ‘to be seen’ (daṭṭhabba) each in its domain of mastery:

“pañcimāni, bhikkhave, balāni. katamāni pañca? saddhābalaṃ, vīriyabalaṃ, satibalaṃ, samādhibalaṃ, paññābalaṃ.

Bhikkhus, there are these five powers. What five? The power of faith,
the power of energy, the power of mindfulness, the power of
concentration, and the power of wisdom.

kattha ca, bhikkhave, saddhābalaṃ daṭṭhabbaṃ? catūsu sotāpattiyaṅgesu…

And where, bhikkhus, is the power of faith to be seen? The power of faith is to be seen in the four factors of stream-entry…

kattha ca, bhikkhave, vīriyabalaṃ daṭṭhabbaṃ? catūsu sammappadhānesu…

And where is the power of energy to be seen? The power of energy is to be seen in the four right strivings…

kattha ca, bhikkhave, satibalaṃ daṭṭhabbaṃ? catūsu satipaṭṭhānesu…

And where is the power of mindfulness to be seen? The power of
mindfulness is to be seen in the four establishments of mindfulness…

kattha ca, bhikkhave, samādhibalaṃ daṭṭhabbaṃ? catūsu jhānesu…

And where is the power of concentration to be seen? The power of concentration is to be seen in the four jhānas…

kattha ca, bhikkhave, paññābalaṃ daṭṭhabbaṃ? catūsu ariyasaccesu…

And where is the power of wisdom to be seen? The power of wisdom is to be seen in the four noble truths…

This set of five balas has its own entire saṃyutta (SN 50), which consists essentially in repetition series. At SN 50.1, these five balas lead towards nibbāna just as the river Ganges slants, slopes, and inclines towards the east (seyyathāpi gaṅgā nadī pācīna·ninnā pācīna·poṇā pācīna·pabbhārā).

The enumeration of each of these balas is
sometimes punctuated by four different formulas. The first one is found
for example at SN 50.1 and is in fact mainly used with the bojjhaṅgas, and occasionally with (spiritual) indriyas: ‘based upon seclusion, dispassion, and cessation, maturing in release’ (viveka·nissita virāga·nissita nirodha·nissita vossagga·pariṇāmi).

The second formula can be found at SN 50.13 and says: ‘which
has the removal of avidity as its final goal, the removal of hatred as
its final goal, the removal of delusion as its final goal’ (rāga·vinaya·pariyosāna dosa·vinaya·pariyosāna moha·vinaya·pariyosāna).

The third one is also found for example at 50.13, and it says: ‘which has the Deathless as its ground, the Deathless as its destination, the Deathless as its final goal’ (amat·ogadha amata·parāyana amata·pariyosāna).

The fourth is also found at 50.13, and it says: ‘which slants towards Nibbāna, slopes towards Nibbāna, inclines towards Nibbāna‘ (nibbāna·ninna nibbāna·poṇa nibbāna·pabbhāra).

These five balas are said to be produced on the basis of other phenomena, among which sīla:

seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, ye keci balakaraṇīyā kammantā karīyanti, sabbe te
pathaviṃ nissāya pathaviyaṃ patiṭṭhāya evamete balakaraṇīyā kammantā
karīyanti; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu sīlaṃ nissāya sīle patiṭṭhāya
pañcāni balāni bhāveti pañcāni balāni bahulīkaroti.

Just as, bhikkhus, whatever actions are to be performed with strength
are all performed on dependence on the earth, supported by the earth; in
the same way, bhikkhus, it is on dependence on virtue, supported by
virtue, that a bhikkhu develops the five powers, that he cultivates the
five powers.

seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, ye kecime bījagāmabhūtagāmā vuḍḍhiṃ virūḷhiṃ
vepullaṃ āpajjanti, sabbe te pathaviṃ nissāya pathaviyaṃ patiṭṭhāya
evamete bījagāmabhūtagāmā vuḍḍhiṃ virūḷhiṃ vepullaṃ āpajjanti; evameva
kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu sīlaṃ nissāya sīle patiṭṭhāya pañcāni balāni
bhāvento pañcāni balāni bahulīkaronto vuḍḍhiṃ virūḷhiṃ vepullaṃ pāpuṇāti
dhammesu.

Just as, bhikkhus, whatever kinds of seed and plant life come to
development, growth, and plenitude, all come to development, growth, and
plenitude on dependence on the earth, supported by the earth; in the
same way, bhikkhus, on dependence on virtue, supported by virtue, a
bhikkhu developing the five powers, cultivating the five powers, comes
to development, growth, and plenitude in [wholesome] mental states.

Appamāda is also said to be a basis for the development of these balas:

“yāvatā, bhikkhave, sattā apadā vā dvipadā vā catuppadā vā bahuppadā vā
rūpino vā arūpino vā saññino vā asaññino vā nevasaññīnāsaññino vā,
tathāgato tesaṃ aggamakkhāyati arahaṃ sammāsambuddho; evameva kho,
bhikkhave, ye keci kusalā dhammā, sabbe te appamādamūlakā
appamādasamosaraṇā; appamādo tesaṃ dhammānaṃ aggamakkhāyati.
appamattassetaṃ, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno pāṭikaṅkhaṃ pañcāni balāni
bhāvessati pañcāni balāni bahulīkarissati.

To the extent that there are animals: footless, two-footed, four-footed,
many footed; with form or formless; percipient, non-percipient, or
neither percipient nor non-percipient, the Tathagata, worthy &
rightly self-awakened, is reckoned the foremost among them. In the same
way, all skillful qualities are rooted in heedfulness, converge in
heedfulness, and heedfulness is reckoned the foremost among them. When a
bhikkhu is heedful, it can be expected that he will develop the five
powers, that he will cultivate the five powers.

Between SN 50.35 and SN 50.54, these five balas are said to lead to the direct knowledge (abhiññā), full understanding (pariññā), complete destruction (parikkhaya), and abandoning (pahāna) of various phenomena: the three discriminations (vidhā), i.e. ‘I am superior’ (‘seyyo·ham·asmī’ti), ‘I am equal’ (‘sadiso·ham·asmī’ti), ‘I am inferior’ (hīno·ham·asmī’ti); the three searches (esanā), i.e. the search for sensuality (kām·esanā), the search for [a good] existence (bhav·esanā), the search for the brahmic life (brahmacariy·esanā); the three āsavā; the three bhavā; the three sufferings (dukkhatā), i.e. the suffering from pain (dukkha·dukkhatā), the suffering from Constructions (saṅkhāra·dukkhatā), the suffering from change (vipariṇāma·dukkhatā); the three akusalamulā; the three types of vedanā; kāma, diṭṭhi and avijjā; the four upādānā; abhijjhā, byāpāda, sīla·bbata parāmāsa and adherence to [the view] ‘This [alone] is the truth’ (idaṃ·sacc·ābhinivesa); the seven anusayā; the five kāma·guṇā; the five nīvaraṇā; the five upādāna·kkhandhas; the ten saṃyojanā.

These five balas represent a tool to remove akusalā dhammā. A number of similes illustrating this point are given in the Bala Saṃyutta: at SN 50.27, akusalā dhammā
are given up by the mind like a pot turned upside down ‘gives up’ its
water; at SN 50.30, they are disintegrated like a cloud providing rain
disintegrates a dust storm; at SN 50.31, they are dispersed like a
strong wind disperses a great cloud giving rain; at SN 50.32, they are
like the ropes on a ship that rot under inclement weather. At SN 50.34,
people, powerful or not, wishing to convince a bhikkhu cultivating these
five balas to abandon monkhood by offering him wealth will be no
more successful than people wishing to change the direction of the
Ganges, because his mind is inclined to seclusion.

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, āgantukāgāraṃ. tattha puratthimāyapi disāya
āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, pacchimāyapi disāya āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti,
uttarāyapi disāya āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, dakkhiṇāyapi disāya āgantvā
vāsaṃ kappenti, khattiyāpi āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, brāhmaṇāpi āgantvā
vāsaṃ kappenti, vessāpi āgantvā vāsaṃ kappenti, suddāpi āgantvā vāsaṃ
kappenti; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu pañcāni balāni bhāvento
pañcāni balāni bahulīkaronto ye dhammā abhiññā pariññeyyā, te dhamme
abhiññā parijānāti, ye dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā, te dhamme abhiññā
pajahati, ye dhammā abhiññā sacchikātabbā, te dhamme abhiññā
sacchikaroti, ye dhammā abhiññā bhāvetabbā, te dhamme abhiññā bhāveti.

Suppose, monks, there is a guest-house. Travelers come from the east,
the west, the north, the south to lodge here: nobles and Brahmans,
merchants and serfs. In the same way, monks, a monk who cultivates the
five powers, who assiduously practices the five powers, comprehends with
higher knowledge those states that are to be so comprehended, abandons
with higher knowledge those states that are to be so abandoned, comes to
experience with higher knowledge those states that are to be so
experienced, and cultivates with higher knowledge those states that are
to be so cultivated.

“katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā pariññeyyā? pañcupādānakkhandhātissa vacanīyaṃ…

What, monks, are the states to be comprehended with higher knowledge? They are the five groups of clinging…

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā? avijjā ca bhavataṇhā ca…

What, monks, are the states to be abandoned with higher knowledge? They are ignorance and the desire for [further] becoming…

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā sacchikātabbā? vijjā ca vimutti ca…

And what, monks, are the states to be experienced with higher knowledge? They are knowledge and liberation…

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā bhāvetabbā? samatho ca vipassanā ca.

And what, monk, are the states to be cultivated with higher knowledge? They are calm and insight.

These five balas seem to be identical with the five spiritual indriyas, being just a different way to explain the same thing, as is explained in the Sāketa Sutta:

Yaṃ, bhikkhave, saddhindriyaṃ taṃ saddhābalaṃ, yaṃ saddhābalaṃ taṃ
saddhindriyaṃ; yaṃ vīriyindriyaṃ taṃ vīriyabalaṃ, yaṃ vīriyabalaṃ taṃ
vīriyindriyaṃ; yaṃ satindriyaṃ taṃ satibalaṃ, yaṃ satibalaṃ taṃ
satindriyaṃ; yaṃ samādhindriyaṃ taṃ samādhibalaṃ, yaṃ samādhibalaṃ taṃ
samādhindriyaṃ; yaṃ paññindriyaṃ taṃ paññābalaṃ, yaṃ paññābalaṃ taṃ
paññindriyaṃ.

That, bhikkhus, which is the faculty of conviction is the power of
conviction, and that which is the power of conviction is the faculty of
conviction. That which is the faculty of energy is the power of energy,
and that which is the power of energy is the faculty of energy. That
which is the faculty of mindfulness is the power of mindfulness, and
that which is the power of mindfulness is the faculty of mindfulness.
That which is the faculty of samādhi is the power of samādhi, and that
which is the power of samādhi is the faculty of samādhi. That which is
the faculty of discernment is the power of discernment, and that which
is the power of discernment is the faculty of discernment.

Seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, nadī pācīnaninnā pācīnapoṇā pācīnapabbhārā, tassa
majjhe dīpo. Atthi, bhikkhave, pariyāyo yaṃ pariyāyaṃ āgamma tassā
nadiyā eko soto tveva saṅkhyaṃ gacchati. Atthi pana, bhikkhave, pariyāyo
yaṃ pariyāyaṃ āgamma tassā nadiyā dve sotāni tveva saṅkhyaṃ gacchanti.

Just as, bhikkhus, if there was a river flowing, going, leading towards
the east, with an island in the middle. There is an analysis according
to which the river has only one stream. There is also, bhikkhus, an
analysis according to which the river has two streams.

In this set of five balas, paññā is declared at AN 5.16 to be the ‘foremost’ (aggaṃ), the ‘one that maintains all in place’ (saṅgāhikaṃ), the ‘one that unifies them’ (saṅghātaniyaṃ).

Sometimes, as is the case at AN 4.152, this set of five is presented as a set of four, not including paññā. At AN 4.261, it is instead saddhā that is left out.

♦ There is another set of five balas: the trainee powers (sekha·bala), which are described and defined in the Vitthata Sutta:

Each item is defined in the Vitthata Sutta (they are identical with those given at AN 5.14 as quoted above, except for the following):

pañcimāni, bhikkhave, sekhabalāni. katamāni pañca? saddhābalaṃ, hirībalaṃ, ottappabalaṃ, vīriyabalaṃ, paññābalaṃ…

Bhikkhus, there are these five trainee’s powers. What five? The power of
faith, the power of moral shame, the power of moral dread, the power of
energy, and the power of wisdom…

“katamañca, bhikkhave, hirībalaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako hirimā
hoti, hirīyati kāyaduccaritena vacīduccaritena manoduccaritena, hirīyati
pāpakānaṃ akusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ samāpattiyā. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave,
hirībalaṃ.

And what is the power of moral shame? Here, a noble disciple has a sense
of moral shame; he is ashamed of bodily, verbal, and mental misconduct;
he is ashamed of acquiring evil, unwholesome qualities. This is called
the power of moral shame.

“katamañca, bhikkhave, ottappabalaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako
ottappī hoti, ottappati kāyaduccaritena vacīduccaritena manoduccaritena,
ottappati pāpakānaṃ akusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ samāpattiyā. idaṃ vuccati,
bhikkhave, ottappabalaṃ.

And what is the power of moral dread? Here, a noble disciple dreads
wrongdoing; he dreads bodily, verbal, and mental misconduct; he dreads
acquiring evil, unwholesome qualities. This is called the power of moral
dread.

These same five balas are also said to be the Tathagata’s powers (tathāgata·bala) in the Ananussuta Sutta:

pañcimāni, bhikkhave, tathāgatassa tathāgatabalāni, yehi balehi
samannāgato tathāgato āsabhaṃ ṭhānaṃ paṭijānāti, parisāsu sīhanādaṃ
nadati, brahmacakkaṃ pavatteti. katamāni pañca? saddhābalaṃ, hirībalaṃ,
ottappabalaṃ, vīriyabalaṃ, paññābalaṃ.

There are these five Tathāgata’s powers that the Tathāgata has,
possessing which he claims the place of the chief bull, roars his lion’s
roar in the assemblies, and sets in motion the brahma wheel. What five?
The power of faith, the power of moral shame, the power of moral dread,
the power of energy, and the power of wisdom.

As was the case with the other set of five balas, paññā is declared at AN 5.12 to be the ‘foremost’ (aggaṃ), the ‘one that maintains all in place’ (saṅgāhikaṃ), the ‘one that unifies them’ (saṅghātaniyaṃ).

♦ We find sometimes these two sets of five balas mashed up in one set of seven, which is described for example in the Vitthata Sutta:

“sattimāni, bhikkhave, balāni. katamāni satta? saddhābala, vīriyabalaṃ,
hirībalaṃ, ottappabalaṃ, satibalaṃ, samādhibalaṃ, paññābalaṃ.

There are, bhikkhus, these seven powers. Which seven? The power of
conviction, the power of energy, the power of conscientiousness, the
power of scruple, the power of mindfulness, the power of concentration,
and the power of discernment.

The definitions that follow in that same sutta are identical to those we have seen above in the two sets of five.

♦ Several variant sets of four balas are given in the Book of Fours of the Aṅguttara Nikāya:

AN 4.154 lists sati, samādhi, anavajja and congeniality (saṅgaha).

AN 4.155 lists reflection (paṭisaṅkhāna), bhāvanā, anavajja and congeniality (saṅgaha).

The Bala Sutta defines another set of four balas:

“cattārimāni, bhikkhave, balāni. katamāni cattāri? paññābalaṃ, vīriyabalaṃ, anavajjabalaṃ, saṅgāhabalaṃ.

There are, bhikkhus, these four powers. Which four? The power of
discernment, the power of energy, the power of faultlessness, and the
power of congeniality.

katamañca, bhikkhave, paññābalaṃ? ye dhammā kusalā kusalasaṅkhātā ye
dhammā akusalā akusalasaṅkhātā ye dhammā sāvajjā sāvajjasaṅkhātā ye
dhammā anavajjā anavajjasaṅkhātā ye dhammā kaṇhā kaṇhasaṅkhātā ye dhammā
sukkā sukkasaṅkhātā ye dhammā sevitabbā sevitabbasaṅkhātā ye dhammā
asevitabbā asevitabbasaṅkhātā ye dhammā nālamariyā nālamariyasaṅkhātā ye
dhammā alamariyā alamariyasaṅkhātā, tyāssa dhammā paññāya vodiṭṭhā
honti vocaritā. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, paññābalaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the power of discernment? The mental states that
are unskillful and considered as unskillful, the mental states that are
skillful and considered as skillful,
the mental states that are faulty and considered as faulty,
the mental states that are faultless and considered as faultless,
the mental states that are evil and considered as evil,
the mental states that are pure and considered as pure,
the mental states that are to be made use of and considered as to be
made use of,
the mental states that are not to be made use of and considered as not
to be made use of,
the mental states that are unsuitable for the noble and considered as
unsuitable for the noble,
and the mental states that are suitable for the noble and considered as
suitable for the noble, have been fully seen with discernment and
investigated. This, bhikkhus, is called the power of discernment.

“katamañca, bhikkhave, vīriyabalaṃ? ye dhammā akusalā akusalasaṅkhātā ye
dhammā sāvajjā sāvajjasaṅkhātā ye dhammā kaṇhā kaṇhasaṅkhātā ye dhammā
asevitabbā asevitabbasaṅkhātā ye dhammā nālamariyā nālamariyasaṅkhātā,
tesaṃ dhammānaṃ pahānāya chandaṃ janeti vāyamati vīriyaṃ ārabhati cittaṃ
paggaṇhāti padahati. ye dhammā kusalā kusalasaṅkhātā ye dhammā anavajjā
anavajjasaṅkhātā ye dhammā sukkā sukkasaṅkhātā ye dhammā sevitabbā
sevitabbasaṅkhātā ye dhammā alamariyā alamariyasaṅkhātā, tesaṃ dhammānaṃ
paṭilābhāya chandaṃ janeti vāyamati vīriyaṃ ārabhati cittaṃ paggaṇhāti
padahati. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, vīriyabalaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the power of energy? One generates desire, exerts
himself, arouses energy, exerts his mind and strives to abandon the
mental states that are unskillful and considered as unskillful,
the mental states that are faulty and considered as faulty,
the mental states that are evil and considered as evil,
the mental states that are not to be made use of and considered as not
to be made use of, and
the mental states that are unsuitable for the noble and considered as
unsuitable for the noble.
One generates desire, exerts himself, arouses energy, exerts his mind
and strives to obtain
the mental states that are skillful and considered as skillful,
the mental states that are faultless and considered as faultless,
the mental states that are pure and considered as pure,
the mental states that are to be made use of and considered as to be
made use of,
and the mental states that are suitable for the noble and considered as
suitable for the noble. This, bhikkhus, is called the power of energy.

“katamañca, bhikkhave, anavajjabalaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, ariyasāvako
anavajjena kāyakammena samannāgato hoti, anavajjena vacīkammena
samannāgato hoti, anavajjena manokammena samannāgato hoti. idaṃ vuccati,
bhikkhave, anavajjabalaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the power of faultlessness? Here, a noble
disciple is possessed of faultless bodily action, is possessed of
faultless verbal action, and is possessed of faultless mental action.
This, bhikkhus, is called the power of faultlessness.

“katamañca, bhikkhave, saṅgāhabalaṃ? cattārimāni, bhikkhave,
saṅgahavatthūni: dānaṃ, peyyavajjaṃ, atthacariyā, samānattatā.
etadaggaṃ, bhikkhave, dānānaṃ yadidaṃ dhammadānaṃ. etadaggaṃ, bhikkhave,
peyyavajjānaṃ yadidaṃ atthikassa ohitasotassa punappunaṃ dhammaṃ
deseti. etadaggaṃ, bhikkhave, atthacariyānaṃ yadidaṃ assaddhaṃ
saddhāsampadāya samādapeti niveseti patiṭṭhāpeti, dussīlaṃ sīlasampadāya
samādapeti niveseti patiṭṭhāpeti, macchariṃ cāgasampadāya samādapeti
niveseti patiṭṭhāpeti, duppaññaṃ paññāsampadāya samādapeti niveseti
patiṭṭhāpeti. etadaggaṃ, bhikkhave, samānattatānaṃ yadidaṃ sotāpanno
sotāpannassa samānatto, sakadāgāmī sakadāgāmissa samānatto, anāgāmī
anāgāmissa samānatto, arahā arahato samānatto. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave,
saṅgāhabalaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the power of congeniality? There, are, bhikkhus,
these four grounds for congeniality: gift, kind speech, helpful conduct
and equality.
This, bhikkhus, is the highest of gifts: the gift of the Dhamma.
This, bhikkhus, is the highest of kind speeches: teaching the Dhamma
again and again to one who is desirous of it and listens attentively.
This, bhikkhus, is the highest of helpful conducts: inciting, exhorting
and establishing one without conviction in the accomplishment of
conviction,
inciting, exhorting and establishing an unvirtuous one in the
accomplishment of virtue,
inciting, exhorting and establishing a stingy one in the accomplishment
of generosity,
inciting, exhorting and establishing one lacking discernment in the
accomplishment of discernment.
This, bhikkhus, is the highest of equalities: a stream-enterer is equal
to a stream-enterer, a once-
returner is equal to a once-returner, a non-returner is equal to a
non-returner, and an arahant is equal to an arahant. This, bhikkhus, is
called the power of congeniality.

imāni kho, bhikkhave, cattāri balāni.

These, bhikkhus, are the four powers.

“imehi kho, bhikkhave, catūhi balehi samannāgato ariyasāvako pañca
bhayāni samatikkanto hoti. katamāni pañca? ājīvikabhayaṃ, asilokabhayaṃ,
parisasārajjabhayaṃ, maraṇabhayaṃ, duggatibhayaṃ.

A noble disciple who is possessed of these four powers has transcended
five fears. Which five? The fear about his livelihood, the fear of bad
reputation, the fear of timidity in assemblies, the fear of death, and
the fear of a bad destination.

♦ There are also sets of two balas. The most prominent is that of reflection (paṭisaṅkhāna) and bhāvanā:

“dvemāni, bhikkhave, balāni. katamāni dve? paṭisaṅkhānabalañca bhāvanābalañca.

There are, bhikkhus, these two powers. Which two? The power of reflection and the power of development.

katamañca, bhikkhave, paṭisaṅkhānabalaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco iti
paṭisañcikkhati: ‘kāyaduccaritassa kho pāpako vipāko diṭṭhe ceva dhamme
abhisamparāyañca, vacīduccaritassa pāpako vipāko diṭṭhe ceva dhamme
abhisamparāyañca, manoduccaritassa pāpako vipāko diṭṭhe ceva dhamme
abhisamparāyañcā’ti. so iti paṭisaṅkhāya kāyaduccaritaṃ pahāya
kāyasucaritaṃ bhāveti, vacīduccaritaṃ pahāya vacīsucaritaṃ bhāveti,
manoduccaritaṃ pahāya manosucaritaṃ bhāveti, suddhaṃ attānaṃ pariharati.
idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, paṭisaṅkhānabalaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the power of reflection? Here, bhikkhus, a certain individual reflects thus: ‘Misconduct
in body brings bad result in this visible world as well as in existence
to come. Misconduct in speech brings bad result in this visible world
as well as in existence to come. Misconduct in mind brings bad result in
this visible world as well as in existence to come.’ Having
reflected thus, he abandons misconduct in body and cultivates good
conduct in body, he abandons misconduct in speech and cultivates good
conduct in speech, he abandons misconduct in mind and cultivates good
conduct in mind, and he maintains himself pure. This, bhikkhus, is
called the power of reflection.

The bhāvanā·bala is then defined as the seven bojjhaṅgas, each punctuated with the formula: viveka·nissitaṃ virāga·nissitaṃ nirodha-nissitaṃ vossagga·pariṇāmiṃ (based on detachment/ seclusion, based on desirelessness, based on cessation, resulting in release).

At AN 2.13, the bhāvanā·bala is defined as the four jhānas.

AN 2.52 mentions the power of persuasion (saññatti·bala) and the power of favorable disposition (nijjhatti·bala), in the context of an assembly of monks discussing a disciplinary issue (adhikaraṇa). AN 2.171 mentions sati·bala and samādhi·bala.

♦ Two suttas mention the powers of an arahant. The most complete, AN 10.90, mentions:

- Having seen all saṅkhāras as they actually are with proper discernment as impermanent (aniccato sabbe saṅkhārā yathābhūtaṃ sammappaññāya sudiṭṭhā honti).

- Having seen kāma as they actually are with proper discernment as smilar to a pit of glowing embers (aṅgārakāsūpamā kāmā yathābhūtaṃ sammappaññāya sudiṭṭhā honti).

- Being naturally inclined to seclusion, delighting
in renunciation, and being completely finished with all states that are a
basis for mental impurities (vivekaninnaṃ cittaṃ hoti … vivekaṭṭhaṃ nekkhammābhirataṃ byantībhūtaṃ sabbaso āsavaṭṭhāniyehi dhammehi).

- The remaining seven items cover the 37 bodhi·pakkhiya·dhammās, taken in groups.

♦ The Tathāgata·balas,
outside cases as AN 5.11 mentioned above, are laid out in a completely
different version, where they are sometimes enumerated as six, but in
their fullest exposition, they are laid out as ten:

“dasayimāni, bhikkhave, tathāgatassa tathāgatabalāni… katamāni dasa?

Bhikkhus, there are these ten Tathāgata’s powers… What ten?

idha, bhikkhave, tathāgato ṭhānañca ṭhānato aṭṭhānañca aṭṭhānato yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti…

Here, the Tathāgata understands as it really is the possible as possible and the impossible as impossible…

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato atītānāgatapaccuppannānaṃ kammasamādānānaṃ ṭhānaso hetuso vipākaṃ yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti…

Again, the Tathāgata understands as it really is the result of the
undertaking of kamma past, future, and present in terms of possibilities
and causes…

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato sabbatthagāminiṃ paṭipadaṃ yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti…

Again, the Tathāgata understands as it really is the ways leading everywhere…

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato anekadhātuṃ nānādhātuṃ lokaṃ yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti…

Again, the Tathāgata understands as it really is the world with its numerous and diverse elements…

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato sattānaṃ nānādhimuttikataṃ yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti…

Again, the Tathāgata understands as it really is the diversity in the dispositions of beings…

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato parasattānaṃ parapuggalānaṃ indriyaparopariyattaṃ yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti…

Again, the Tathāgata understands as it really is the superior or
inferior condition of the faculties of other beings and persons…

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato jhānavimokkhasamādhisamāpattīnaṃ saṃkilesaṃ vodānaṃ vuṭṭhānaṃ yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti…

Again, the Tathāgata understands as it really is the defilement, the
cleansing, and the emergence in regard to the jhānas, emancipations,
concentrations, and meditative attainments…

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato anekavihitaṃ pubbenivāsaṃ anussarati…

Again, the Tathāgata recollects his manifold past abodes…

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato dibbena cakkhunā visuddhena
atikkantamānusakena satte passati cavamāne upapajjamāne hīne paṇīte
suvaṇṇe dubbaṇṇe, sugate duggate yathākammūpage satte pajānāti…

Again, with the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human,
the Tathāgata sees beings passing away and being reborn, inferior and
superior, beautiful and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate, and he
understands how beings fare in accordance with their kamma…

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, tathāgato āsavānaṃ khayā anāsavaṃ cetovimuttiṃ
paññāvimuttiṃ diṭṭheva dhamme sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā upasampajja
viharati.

Again, with the destruction of the taints, the Tathāgata has realized
for himself with direct knowledge, in this very life, the taintless
liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, and having entered upon it, he
dwells in it.

♦ Several discourses list five powers of a woman (mātugāmassa bala):

“pañcimāni, bhikkhave, mātugāmassa balāni. katamāni pañca? rūpabalaṃ, bhogabalaṃ, ñātibalaṃ, puttabalaṃ, sīlabalaṃ.

There are, bhikkhus, these five powers of a woman. Which five? The power
of attractiveness, the power of wealth, the power of relatives, the
power of children, and the power of virtue.

♦ The Bala Sutta proposes a list of eight miscellaneous powers:

“aṭṭhimāni, bhikkhave, balāni. katamāni aṭṭha? ruṇṇabalā, bhikkhave,
dārakā, kodhabalā mātugāmā, āvudhabalā corā, issariyabalā rājāno,
ujjhattibalā bālā, nijjhattibalā paṇḍitā, paṭisaṅkhānabalā bahussutā,
khantibalā samaṇabrāhmaṇā. imāni kho, bhikkhave, aṭṭha balānī”ti.

Bhikkhus, there are these eight powers. What eight? The power of
children is weeping; the power of women is anger; the power of thieves
is a weapon; the power of kings is sovereignty; the power of fools is to
complain; the power of the wise is to deliberate; the power of the
learned is reflection; the power of ascetics and brahmins is patience.
These are the eight powers.

These powers all have in common that they allow one
who possesses them to solve their most recurrent problems, but their
nature vary widely, from annoyance to threat, to inner good qualities.

bāla:

fool (n.), foolish (adj.)

“kammalakkhaṇo, bhikkhave, bālo… tīhi, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato
bālo veditabbo. katamehi tīhi? kāyaduccaritena, vacīduccaritena,
manoduccaritena.

Monks, a fool is characterized by his/her actions… A person endowed
with three things is to be recognized as a fool. Which three? Bodily
misconduct, verbal misconduct, mental misconduct.

“cattārīsāya, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato bālo veditabbo. katamehi
cattārīsāya? attanā ca pāṇātipātī hoti, parañca pāṇātipāte samādapeti,
pāṇātipāte ca samanuñño hoti, pāṇātipātassa ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

Monks, a person endowed with forty qualities is to be recognized as a
fool. Which forty?
He destroys life himself, he encourages others to destroy life, he
approves of the destruction of life and he praises the destruction of
life.

attanā ca adinnādāyī hoti, parañca adinnādāne samādapeti, adinnādāne ca samanuñño hoti, adinnādānassa ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He takes what is not given himself, he encourages others to take what is
not given, he approves of taking what is not given and he praises
taking what is not given.

attanā ca kāmesumicchācārī hoti, parañca kāmesumicchācāre samādapeti,
kāmesumicchācāre ca samanuñño hoti, kāmesumicchācārassa ca vaṇṇaṃ
bhāsati;

He engages in sexual misconduct himself, he encourages others to engage
in sexual misconduct, he approves of engaging in sexual misconduct and
he praises engaging in sexual misconduct.

attanā ca musāvādī hoti, parañca musāvāde samādapeti, musāvāde ca samanuñño hoti, musāvādassa ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He speaks falsely himself, he encourages others to speak falsely, he
approves of speaking falsely and he praises speaking falsely.

attanā ca pisuṇavāco hoti, parañca pisuṇāya vācāya samādapeti, pisuṇāya
vācāya ca samanuñño hoti, pisuṇāya vācāya ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He engages in divisive speech himself, he encourages others to engage in
divisive speech, he approves of engaging in divisive speech and he
praises engaging in divisive speech.

attanā ca pharusavāco hoti, parañca pharusāya vācāya samādapeti,
pharusāya vācāya ca samanuñño hoti, pharusāya vācāya ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He engages in harsh speech himself, he encourages others to engage in
harsh speech, he approves of engaging in harsh speech and he praises
engaging in harsh speech.

attanā ca samphappalāpī hoti, parañca samphappalāpe samādapeti,
samphappalāpe ca samanuñño hoti, samphappalāpassa ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He engages in useless chatter himself, he encourages others to engage in
useless chatter, he approves of engaging in useless chatter and he
praises engaging in useless chatter.

attanā ca abhijjhālu hoti, parañca abhijjhāya samādapeti, abhijjhāya ca samanuñño hoti, abhijjhāya ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He is envious himself, he encourages others to be envious, he approves of being envious and he praises being envious.

attanā ca byāpannacitto hoti, parañca byāpāde samādapeti, byāpāde ca samanuñño hoti, byāpādassa ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati;

He has a mind of ill-will himself, he encourages others to bear ill-will, he approves of ill-will and he praises ill-will.

attanā ca micchādiṭṭhiko hoti, parañca micchādiṭṭhiyā samādapeti,
micchādiṭṭhiyā ca samanuñño hoti, micchādiṭṭhiyā ca vaṇṇaṃ bhāsati.

He has wrong view himself, he encourages others to have wrong view, he
approves of having wrong view and he praises having wrong view.

“tīhi, bhikkhave, dhammehi samannāgato bālo veditabbo. katamehi tīhi?
ayoniso pañhaṃ kattā hoti, ayoniso pañhaṃ vissajjetā hoti, parassa kho
pana yoniso pañhaṃ vissajjitaṃ parimaṇḍalehi padabyañjanehi siliṭṭhehi
upagatehi nābbhanumoditā hoti.

Bhikkhus, one who possesses three qualities should be known as a fool.
What three? He formulates a question carelessly; he replies to a
question carelessly; when another person replies to a question
carefully, with well-rounded and coherent words and phrases, he does not
approve of it.

Asappurisa is frequently juxtaposed with bāla:

‘bālo ayaṃ bhavaṃ asappuriso’’ti.

‘This individual is a fool, a bad person’.

Other synonyms include akusala (unskillful, SN 1.35), mūḷha (stupid, SN 1.35), abyatta (incompetent, AN 9.35), akhettaññū (inexperienced, literally ‘not knowing the field’, AN 9.35), dummedha (of poor discernment, AN 3.57). The antonym of bāla is paṇḍita. The longest description of what a bāla is, in contrast with a paṇḍita, who has the opposite qualities, appears in the Bālapaṇḍita Sutta:

“tīṇimāni, bhikkhave, bālassa bālalakkhaṇāni bālanimittāni bālāpadānāni.
katamāni tīṇi? idha, bhikkhave, bālo duccintitacintī ca hoti
dubbhāsitabhāsī ca dukkaṭakammakārī ca. no cetaṃ, bhikkhave, bālo
duccintitacintī ca abhavissa dubbhāsitabhāsī ca dukkaṭakammakārī ca kena
naṃ paṇḍitā jāneyyuṃ: ‘bālo ayaṃ bhavaṃ asappuriso’’ti? yasmā ca kho,
bhikkhave, bālo duccintitacintī ca hoti dubbhāsitabhāsī ca
dukkaṭakammakārī ca tasmā naṃ paṇḍitā jānanti: ‘bālo ayaṃ bhavaṃ
asappuriso’’ti.

There are, bhikkhus, these three characteristics of a fool, signs of
a fool, features of a fool. What three? Here, bhikkhus, a fool thinks
bad thoughts, speaks bad words and performs bad deeds. If a fool didn’t
think bad thoughts, speak bad words, and perform bad deeds, how would a
wise one know him: ‘This individual is a fool, a bad person?’ But
because a fool thinks
bad thoughts, speaks bad words and performs bad deeds, a wise one knows
him:
‘This individual is a fool, a bad person.’

sa kho so, bhikkhave, bālo tividhaṃ diṭṭheva dhamme dukkhaṃ domanassaṃ
paṭisaṃvedeti. sace, bhikkhave, bālo sabhāyaṃ vā nisinno hoti, rathikāya
vā nisinno hoti, siṅghāṭake vā nisinno hoti, tatra ce jano tajjaṃ
tassāruppaṃ kathaṃ manteti. sace, bhikkhave, bālo pāṇātipātī hoti,
adinnādāyī hoti, kāmesumicchācārī hoti, musāvādī hoti,
surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhāyī hoti, tatra, bhikkhave, bālassa evaṃ hoti:
‘yaṃ kho jano tajjaṃ tassāruppaṃ kathaṃ manteti, saṃvijjanteva te dhammā
mayi, ahañca tesu dhammesu sandissāmī’ti. idaṃ, bhikkhave, bālo
paṭhamaṃ diṭṭheva dhamme dukkhaṃ domanassaṃ paṭisaṃvedeti.

A fool feels pain and grief in this visible world in three ways. If a
fool is seated in an assembly hall, in a street or in a square and there
the people are discussing some pertinent and relevant matters,
then, and if the fool destroys life, takes what is not
given, engages in misconduct regarding sensual pleasures, speaks falsely,
and drinks liquors, spirits and intoxicants that cause carelessness, he thinks:
‘These people are discussing some pertinent
and relevant matters. These things are present in me, and I am seen
having them.’ This, bhikkhus, is the first kind of pain and grief that a
fool feels in this visible world.

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bālo passati rājāno coraṃ āgucāriṃ gahetvā
vividhā kammakāraṇā kārente: kasāhipi tāḷente vettehipi tāḷente…
asināpi sīsaṃ chindante. tatra, bhikkhave, bālassa evaṃ hoti:
‘yathārūpānaṃ kho pāpakānaṃ kammānaṃ hetu rājāno coraṃ āgucāriṃ gahetvā
vividhā kammakāraṇā kārenti: kasāhipi tāḷenti … asināpi sīsaṃ
chindanti; saṃvijjanteva te dhammā mayi, ahañca tesu dhammesu
sandissāmi. maṃ cepi rājāno jāneyyuṃ, mampi rājāno gahetvā vividhā
kammakāraṇā kāreyyuṃ kasāhipi tāḷeyyuṃ … jīvantampi sūle uttāseyyuṃ,
asināpi sīsaṃ chindeyyun’ti. idampi, bhikkhave, bālo dutiyaṃ diṭṭheva
dhamme dukkhaṃ domanassaṃ paṭisaṃvedeti.

Moreover, when a robber culprit has been caught, a fool sees him
subjected to various types of torture by kings: getting flogged with
whips, flogged with rods… beheaded with a sword. There the fool
thinks: ‘When a robber culprit has been caught, because of such bad
deeds, he is subjected to various types of torture by kings: getting
flogged with whips, flogged with rods… beheaded with a sword.
These things are present in me, and I am seen
having them. If kings knew me, I would also be subjected to various
types of torture by kings: getting flogged with whips, flogged with
rods… beheaded with a sword.’ This, bhikkhus, is the second kind of
pain and grief that a fool feels in this visible world.

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bālaṃ pīṭhasamārūḷhaṃ vā mañcasamārūḷhaṃ vā
chamāyaṃ vā semānaṃ, yānissa pubbe pāpakāni kammāni katāni kāyena
duccaritāni vācāya duccaritāni manasā duccaritāni tānissa tamhi samaye
olambanti ajjholambanti abhippalambanti. seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, mahataṃ
pabbatakūṭānaṃ chāyā sāyanhasamayaṃ pathaviyā olambanti ajjholambanti
abhippalambanti; evameva kho, bhikkhave, bālaṃ pīṭhasamārūḷhaṃ vā
mañcasamārūḷhaṃ vā chamāyaṃ vā semānaṃ, yānissa pubbe pāpakāni kammāni
katāni kāyena duccaritāni vācāya duccaritāni manasā duccaritāni tānissa
tamhi samaye olambanti ajjholambanti abhippalambanti.

Moreover, bhikkhus, when a fool is on a chair, on a bed, or lying down
on the floor, in such a moment, the bad actions he performed earlier by
bodily misconduct,
verbal misconduct, or mental misconduct fall on him, cover him, and
envelop him. Just as, bhikkhus, in the
evening, a great mountain peak’s shadow falls on the earth, covers, and
envelops it, in the same way, when a fool is on a chair, on a bed, or
lying down on the floor, in such a moment, the bad actions he performed
earlier by bodily misconduct,
verbal misconduct, or mental misconduct fall on him, cover him, and
envelop him.

tatra, bhikkhave, bālassa evaṃ hoti: ‘akataṃ vata me kalyāṇaṃ, akataṃ
kusalaṃ, akataṃ bhīruttāṇaṃ; kataṃ pāpaṃ, kataṃ luddaṃ, kataṃ kibbisaṃ.
yāvatā, bho, akatakalyāṇānaṃ akatakusalānaṃ akatabhīruttāṇānaṃ
katapāpānaṃ kataluddānaṃ katakibbisānaṃ gati taṃ gatiṃ pecca
gacchāmī’ti. so socati kilamati paridevati urattāḷiṃ kandati sammohaṃ
āpajjati. idampi, bhikkhave, bālo tatiyaṃ diṭṭheva dhamme dukkhaṃ
domanassaṃ paṭisaṃvedeti.

Then, bhikkhus, a fool thinks: ‘Truly, I have not done what is
beneficial, I have not done
what is skillful, I have not made a protection from fear, I
have done what is bad, I have done what is cruel, I have done wrong.
The destination of those who have not done what is beneficial, who have
not done
what is skillful, who have not made a protection from fear, who
have done what is bad, who have done what is cruel, who have done wrong
is the destination where I will go after death. He sorrows, grieves,
laments, beats his breast and becomes distraught. This, bhikkhus, is the
third kind of pain and grief that a fool feels in this visible world.

“sa kho so, bhikkhave, bālo kāyena duccaritaṃ caritvā vācāya duccaritaṃ
caritvā manasā duccaritaṃ caritvā kāyassa bhedā paraṃ maraṇā apāyaṃ
duggatiṃ vinipātaṃ nirayaṃ upapajjati.

Bhikkhus, a fool who has engaged in bodily misconduct,
verbal misconduct and mental misconduct, on the break-up of the body,
after death, re-appears in a plane of deprivation, a bad destination,
the lower realms, or in hell.

As we have seen above, a bāla is characterized by his wrong behavior. At AN 2.136, a bāla misbehaves towards mother and/or father. At the end of DN 2, King Ajatasattu calls himself a bāla because he killed his own father. At AN 2.137, a bāla misbehaves towards the Buddha or one of his disciples. At SN 1.35, some devas call themselves bālas because they were trying to find fault with the Buddha.

Often, the wrong behavior of a bāla is explained by the fact that he fails to take the results of his actions into consideration. At SN 2.22, a bāla thinks fortune is on his side as long as his wrong behavior does not yield its fruits. At SN 3.15, a bāla
who acts wrongly behaves like an enemy to himself, because he will
experience the bitter results of his actions. At SN 7.4, if a bāla wrongs an innocent man, a pure person, then bad things come back to him like dust thrown against the wind.

The wrong behavior of a bāla is often a verbal one. At SN 6.9, a bāla who utters defamatory speech cuts himself with an axe that is in his mouth. At SN 7.3, a bāla thinks he is victorious in a verbal quarrel when he shouts harshly. At MN 65, a bhikkhu calls himself a bāla
because he declared he refused to abide by a new rule laid down by the
Buddha (not eating after noon). At SN 16.6, a group of bhikkhus call
themselves bālas after having been rebuked by the Buddha for
competing with each other in regard to their learning, as to who could
speak more, better, or longer. At MN 140, a bhikkhu calls himself a bāla because, not having recognized the Buddha, he addressed him as āvuso.

A bāla is also recognized by his appetite for kāmā. At MN 106, kāmā are said to be inconstant, hollow, vain, deceptive, illusory, and to be the babble (or subject of conversation?) of bālas (bāla·lāpana). At AN 2.38, however old may be an elder, if he enjoys kāmā,
if he burns with fever for them, if he is consumed by thoughts about
them and is eager to get them, then he is recognized as a bāla.

One who lacks generosity is a bāla, as stated at SN 1.32: ‘What
fears a miser who does not give is the danger that befalls the one who
does not give. The hunger and thirst that a miser fears touches that
same fool in this world and the other one.’ At AN 3.57, a bāla does not attend on the ‘holy ones’ (sante, meaning arahants according to the commentary).

One who lacks wisdom and discernment and therefore may engage in foolish action is a bāla. At MN 34, a cowherd is called a bāla
because in the last month of mansoon, he made his cattle cross the
Ganges in a place that had no ford, without examining the shores of the
river. At SN 2.22, a bāla who leaves the Dhamma to follow a way
that is opposed to it is like a carter having left the even surface
offered by the highway to enter a rugged bypath, who mourns because of
his broken axle. At AN 4.15, a bāla does not reckon that some
deeds are disagreeable to do and yet would be beneficial on the long
run, and that some deeds, although they are agreeable to do, turn out to
be unbeneficial on the long run, so he does not act in his own
interest. At SN 9.3, a bāla looks but does not see, he listens to the Dhamma but does not understand and grasp the meaning. At SN 1.10, ‘From longing for the future, from sorrowing over the past, bālas wither away like a green reed cut down’.

In a monastic context, one may also be called a bāla. At AN 2.98, there is a bāla
who takes in charge what does not befall him (responsibilities) and
another one who does not take in charge what befalls him. Similarly, at
AN 2.104 and 106, there is a bāla who perceives what is not in
accordance with the Dhamma (resp. the Discipline) as what is in
accordance with the Dhamma (resp. the Discipline) and vice versa. Also,
at SN 47.3, a bhikkhu asks the Buddha for a teaching in brief before
dwelling in seclusion, diligent, ardent and resolute, but he responds
that some bālas make such a request and then fail to live in seclusion, following the Buddha around instead.

AN 3.1 declares that whatever perils, calamities or misfortunes there are in the world always arise because of bālas. At SN 1.36, it is said that bālas devote themselves to pamāda (pamādam·anuyuñjanti). At AN 2.134, a bāla,
without investigating the case, praises one who deserves criticism or
criticizes one who deserves praise. At AN 2.135, without investigating
the case, he believes a matter that should draw suspicion and is
suspicious about a matter that should draw confidence.

At AN 8.27, the power (bala) of a fool (bāla) is to complain (ujjhatti·balā bālā).

bhad(d)ante: vocative form of bhadanta, a respectful form of address for people of esteem meaning something akin to ‘reverend sir’ or ‘venerable’.

This expression is generally used in the suttas by
the bhikkhus towards the Buddha. In the modern day Theravada world, it
may also be used to greet a senior monk or in traditional chantings to
call the attention of devas.

The word derives from bhadda (explained as synonymous with kalyāṇa),
which means good (as for example an elephant good to be trained, MN
129) or excellent (as for example someone with very good qualities, SN
16.8). Bhante is likely a contracted form.

Bhagavā: Fortunate One, Lord, Venerable, Sublime
One, generally translated as Blessed One or Exalted One. The term is
derived from the word bhaga (luck, good fortune) and is
systematically used in the suttas when his disciples speak of the Buddha
at the third person. Those who are not his disciples generally call him
‘bho Gotama’ or ‘samaṇa Gotama’.

bhante: a respectful form of address for people of esteem meaning something akin to ‘reverend sir’ or ‘venerable’. Generally considered to be a contracted form of bhadante.

bhava:

(state of) existence, life, becoming, process of existence.

Bhava is not ‘existence’ in the
ontological sense, like the existence of a building in a particular
place or of an hypothetical number with strange properties, which would
correspond to the noun ‘atthitā’, derived from the verb atthi and found for example at SN 12.15. The meaning of the word bhava is described by Ven. Bodhi as ‘concrete sentient existence in one of the three realms of existence posited by Buddhist cosmology’, while Ven. Thanissaro suggests it means ‘a
sense of identity in a particular world of experience: your sense of
what you are, focused on a particular desire, in your personal sense of
the world as related to that desire’, and insists the word has both psychological and cosmological connotations. He also adds: ‘[The
term ‘becoming’] follows on doing, rather than existing as a prior
metaphysical absolute or ground. In other words, it’s not the source
from which we come; it’s something produced by the activity of our
minds.’ He has written a long essay on the subject, The Paradox of Becoming. However, Ven. Bodhi explains that he reverted to using the rendering ‘existence’, after the shortcomings of ‘becoming’ were pointed out to him.

The explicit definition given in the suttas mentions three types of bhava:

This definition is found for example in the Bhavapañhā Sutta:

—
“‘bhavo, bhavo’ti, āvuso sāriputta, vuccati. katamo nu kho, āvuso, bhavo”ti?

—
‘Existence, existence’, is it said, friend Sariputta. But what, friend, is existence?

—
“tayo me, āvuso, bhavā: kāmabhavo, rūpabhavo, arūpabhavo. ime kho, āvuso, tayo bhavā”ti.

—
Friend, there are these three types of existence: existence in the sense
field, existence as form and formless existence. These, friend, are the
three types of existence.

—
“atthi panāvuso, maggo atthi paṭipadā, etesaṃ bhavānaṃ pariññāyā”ti?

—
But friend, is there a path, is there a way for the full understanding of these types of existence?

—“atthi kho, āvuso, maggo atthi paṭipadā, etesaṃ bhavānaṃ pariññāyā”ti.

—
There is, friend, a path, there is a way for the full understanding of these types of existence.

—
“katamo, panāvuso, maggo katamā paṭipadā, etesaṃ bhavānaṃ pariññāyā”ti?

—
And what, friend, is the path, what is the way for the full understanding of these types of existence?

“ayameva kho, āvuso, ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo, etesaṃ bhavānaṃ pariññāya…

This noble eightfold path, friend, is for the full understanding of these types of existence…

SN 45.164 repeats essentially the same thing, and adds that the ariya aṭṭh·aṅgika magga is also for their direct knowledge (abhiññā), for their complete destruction (parikkhaya), and for their abandoning (pahāna).

We find the same threefold characterization in the Vibhaṅga Sutta, which defines term in the context of paṭicca·samuppāda, where bhava is conditioned by upādāna and in turn conditions the arising of jāti:

upādāna·paccayā bhavo;

conditioned by attachment, [there is] existence

bhava·paccayā jāti;

conditioned by existence, [there is] birth

…

…

Katamo ca, bhikkhave, bhavo? Tayo·me, bhikkhave, bhavā: kāma·bhavo, rūpa·bhavo, arūpa·bhavo. Ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhavo.

And what, bhikkhus, is existence? There are, bhikkhus, these three types
of existence: sensual existence, Form-existence, formless existence.
This is called, bhikkhus, existence.

As every other phenomenon, bhava has the characteristic of anicca:

atha kho bhagavā parittaṃ gomayapiṇḍaṃ pāṇinā gahetvā taṃ bhikkhuṃ
etadavoca: “ettakopi kho, bhikkhu, attabhāvapaṭilābho natthi nicco dhuvo
sassato avipariṇāmadhammo sassatisamaṃ tatheva ṭhassati. ettako cepi,
bhikkhu, attabhāvapaṭilābho abhavissa nicco dhuvo sassato
avipariṇāmadhammo, nayidaṃ brahmacariyavāso paññāyetha sammā
dukkhakkhayāya. yasmā ca kho, bhikkhu, ettakopi attabhāvapaṭilābho
natthi nicco dhuvo sassato avipariṇāmadhammo, tasmā brahmacariyavāso
paññāyati sammā dukkhakkhayāya.

Then the Blessed One took up a little lump of cowdung in his hand and
said to that bhikkhu: “Bhikkhu, there is not even this much individual
existence that is permanent, stable, eternal, not subject to change, and
that will remain the same just like eternity itself. If there was this
much individual existence that was permanent, stable, eternal, not
subject to change, this living of the holy life for the complete
destruction of suffering could not be discerned. But because there is
not even this much individual existence that is permanent, stable,
eternal, not subject to change, this living of the holy life for the
complete destruction of suffering is discerned.

A few suttas mention kamma, viññāṇa and taṇhā as playing a role in the ‘production of future renewed existence’ (āyatiṃ puna·bbhav·ābhinibbatti), such as the Bhava Sutta:

—
“bhavo, bhavoti, bhante, vuccati. kittāvatā nu kho, bhante, bhavo hotī”ti?

—
“Lord, this word, ‘becoming, becoming’ — to what extent is there becoming?”

—
“kāmadhātuvepakkañca, ānanda, kammaṃ nābhavissa, api nu kho kāmabhavo paññāyethā”ti?

—
“Ananda, if there were no kamma ripening in the sensuality-property, would sensuality-becoming be discerned?”

—
“no hetaṃ, bhante”.

—
“No, lord.”

—
“iti kho, ānanda, kammaṃ khettaṃ, viññāṇaṃ bījaṃ, taṇhā sneho.
avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ hīnāya dhātuyā viññāṇaṃ
patiṭṭhitaṃ evaṃ āyatiṃ punabbhavābhinibbatti hoti.

—
“Thus kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the
moisture. The consciousness of living beings hindered by ignorance &
fettered by craving is established in/tuned to a lower property. Thus
there is the production of renewed becoming in the future.

—
rūpadhātuvepakkañca, ānanda, kammaṃ nābhavissa, api nu kho rūpabhavo paññāyethā”ti?

—
“If there were no kamma ripening in the form-property, would form-becoming be discerned?”

—
“no hetaṃ, bhante”.

—
“No, lord.”

—
“iti kho ānanda, kammaṃ khettaṃ, viññāṇaṃ bījaṃ, taṇhā sneho.
avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ majjhimāya dhātuyā viññāṇaṃ
patiṭṭhitaṃ evaṃ āyatiṃ punabbhavābhinibbatti hoti.

—
“Thus kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the
moisture. The consciousness of living beings hindered by ignorance &
fettered by craving is established in/tuned to a middling property.
Thus there is the production of renewed becoming in the future.

—
“arūpadhātuvepakkañca, ānanda, kammaṃ nābhavissa, api nu kho arūpabhavo paññāyethā”ti?

—
“If there were no kamma ripening in the formless-property, would formless-becoming be discerned?”

—
“no hetaṃ, bhante”.

—
“No, lord.”

—
“iti kho, ānanda, kammaṃ khettaṃ, viññāṇaṃ bījaṃ, taṇhā sneho.
avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ paṇītāya dhātuyā viññāṇaṃ
patiṭṭhitaṃ evaṃ āyatiṃ punabbhavābhinibbatti hoti. evaṃ kho, ānanda,
bhavo hotī”ti.

—
“Thus kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the
moisture. The consciousness of living beings hindered by ignorance &
fettered by craving is established in/tuned to a refined property. Thus
there is the production of renewed becoming in the future. This is how
there is becoming.”

The next sutta repeats the exact same thing, except that it is no longer viññāṇa that is established in/tuned to the various levels, but cetanā and patthanā (aspiration):

“iti kho, ānanda, kammaṃ khettaṃ, viññāṇaṃ bījaṃ, taṇhā sneho. avijjānīvaraṇānaṃ sattānaṃ taṇhāsaṃyojanānaṃ hīnāya dhātuyā cetanā patiṭṭhitā patthanā patiṭṭhitā evaṃ āyatiṃ punabbhavābhinibbatti hoti”.

“Thus kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the moisture. The intention & aspiration
of living beings hindered by ignorance & fettered by craving is
established in/tuned to a lower property. Thus there is the production
of renewed becoming in the future.

SN 23.3 explains that bhava arises because of chanda, rāga, delight (nandi), taṇhā, upādāna, mental standpoints (cetaso adhiṭṭhānā), adherences (abhinivesa), and anusayas regarding the five khandhas:

— “‘bhavanetti, bhavanettī’ti, bhante, vuccati. katamā nu kho, bhante, bhavanetti, katamo bhavanettinirodho”ti?

—
Bhante, it is said: ‘The conduit to existence, the conduit to existence.’ Bhante, what is the conduit to existence, and what is the cessation of the conduit to existence?

“rūpe kho, rādha, yo chando yo rāgo yā nandī yā taṇhā ye upayupādānā
cetaso adhiṭṭhānābhinivesānusayā: ayaṃ vuccati bhavanetti. tesaṃ nirodho
bhavanettinirodho.

Radha, the desire, avidity, delight, craving, clinging & attachment,
mental determinations, inclinations, and latent tendencies towards
Form: this is called the conduit to existence. Their cessation is the
cessation of the conduit to existence.

vedanāya… saññāya… saṅkhāresu … viññāṇe yo chando … pe …
adhiṭṭhānābhinivesānusayā — ayaṃ vuccati bhavanetti. tesaṃ nirodho
bhavanettinirodho”ti.

The desire, avidity, delight, craving, clinging & attachment, mental
determinations, inclinations, and latent tendencies towards Feeling…
Perception… Constructions… Consciousness: this is called the conduit
to existence. Their cessation is the cessation of the conduit to
existence.

The Majjhe Sutta singles out taṇhā as a prominent cause for the production of bhava (bhavassa abhinibbattiyā):

taṇhā sibbinī: taṇhā hi naṃ sibbati tassa tasseva bhavassa abhinibbattiyā

craving is the seamstress: craving sews one to the production of this or that existence.

In turn, craving for existence (bhava·taṇhā) has no beginning and is rooted in avijjā:

“purimā, bhikkhave, koṭi na paññāyati bhavataṇhāya: ‘ito pubbe
bhavataṇhā nāhosi, atha pacchā samabhavī’ti. evañcetaṃ, bhikkhave,
vuccati, atha ca pana paññāyati: ‘idappaccayā bhavataṇhā’ti.

“Bhikkhus, it is said: ‘A first point of craving for existence,
bhikkhus, is not seen such that before this there was no craving for
existence and afterward it came into being.’ Still, craving for
existence is seen to have a specific condition.

“bhavataṇhāmpāhaṃ, bhikkhave, sāhāraṃ vadāmi, no anāhāraṃ. ko cāhāro bhavataṇhāya? ‘avijjā’tissa vacanīyaṃ.

“I say, bhikkhus, that craving for existence has a nutriment; it is not
without nutriment. And what is the nutriment for craving for existence?
It should be said: ignorance.

In the Bhāra Sutta, the taṇhā leading to renewed existence (pono·bhavikā), which includes bhava·taṇhā and vibhava·taṇhā, is called ‘the taking up of the burden’ (bhār·ādāna). In the Ejā Sutta, the entire world seeks delight in bhava:

aññathābhāvī bhavasatto loko bhavameva abhinandati.

The world, becoming otherwise, attached to existence, seeks delight only in existence.

The usual set of questions characterized at SN 56.8
as bad, unskillful is said in the Sāriputtakoṭṭhika Sutta to be
important only to one who delights in existence:

bhavārāmassa kho, āvuso, bhavaratassa bhavasammuditassa, bhavanirodhaṃ
ajānato apassato yathābhūtaṃ, ‘hoti tathāgato paraṃ maraṇā’tipissa hoti
… pe … ‘neva hoti na na hoti tathāgato paraṃ maraṇā’tipissa hoti.

It is one who delights in existence, who takes delight in existence, who
rejoices in existence, and who does not know and see the cessation of
existence as it really is, that thinks: ‘The Tathagata exists after
death’ … or ‘The Tathagata neither exists nor does not exist after
death.’

na bhavārāmassa kho, āvuso, na bhavaratassa na bhavasammuditassa,
bhavanirodhaṃ jānato passato yathābhūtaṃ, ‘hoti tathāgato paraṃ
maraṇā’tipissa na hoti … pe … ‘neva hoti na na hoti tathāgato paraṃ
maraṇā’tipissa na hoti. ayampi kho, āvuso, pariyāyo, yenetaṃ abyākataṃ
bhagavatā”ti.

“But, friend, one who does not delight in existence, who does not take
delight in existence, who does not rejoice in existence, and who knows
and sees the cessation of existence as it really is, does not think:
‘The Tathagata exists after death’ … or ‘The Tathagata neither exists
nor does not exist after death.’

In the Nibbedhika Sutta, a particular existence is determined by the vipāka of kāmā:

“katamo ca, bhikkhave, kāmānaṃ vipāko? yaṃ kho, bhikkhave, kāmayamāno
tajjaṃ tajjaṃ attabhāvaṃ abhinibbatteti puññabhāgiyaṃ vā apuññabhāgiyaṃ
vā, ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, kāmānaṃ vipāko.

“And what is the result of sensuality? One who wants sensuality produces
a corresponding state of existence, on the side of merit or demerit.
This is called the result of sensuality.

In the Āgantuka Sutta, bhava·taṇhā is to be abandoned through abhiññā:

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā? avijjā ca bhavataṇhā ca. ime, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā pahātabbā.

“And what, bhikkhus, are the things to be abandoned by direct knowledge?
Ignorance and craving for existence. These are the things to be
abandoned by direct knowledge.

In the Sāriputta Sutta, the cessation of bhava is explicitly mentioned as meaning Nibbāna:

Seyyathāpi, āvuso, sakalikaggissa jhāyamānassa aññāva acci uppajjati
aññāva acci nirujjhati; evamevaṃ kho, āvuso, ‘bhavanirodho nibbānaṃ
bhavanirodho nibbānan’ti aññāva saññā uppajjati aññāva saññā nirujjhati.
‘Bhavanirodho nibbānan’ti saññī ca panāhaṃ, āvuso, tasmiṃ samaye
ahosin”ti.

Just as, when a fire of twigs is burning, one flame arises and another
flame ceases, so one perception arose and another perception ceased in
me: ‘The cessation of existence is nibbāna; the cessation of existence
is nibbāna.’ On that occasion, friend, I was percipient: ‘The cessation
of existence is nibbāna.’”

In a recurrent expression, upon fulfilling the training in general or in a particular aspect, it is often said:

Ñāṇañca pana me dassanaṃ udapādi: ‘akuppā me vimutti; ayamantimā jāti; natthi dāni punabbhavo’”ti.

“The knowledge and vision arose in me: ‘Unshakable is my liberation of
mind; this is my last birth; now there is no more renewed existence.’”

The Aniccasaññā Sutta explains how the perception of impermanence eliminates bhava·rāga:

“aniccasaññā, bhikkhave, bhāvitā bahulīkatā sabbaṃ kāmarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ rūparāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ bhavarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ avijjaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanati”.

“Bhikkhus, when the perception of impermanence is developed and cultivated, it eliminates all sensual lust, it eliminates all lust for existence, it eliminates all ignorance, it uproots all conceit ‘I am.’

…

…

“kathaṃ bhāvitā ca, bhikkhave, aniccasaññā kathaṃ bahulīkatā sabbaṃ
kāmarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ rūparāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ bhavarāgaṃ
pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ avijjaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanati?
‘iti rūpaṃ, iti rūpassa samudayo, iti rūpassa atthaṅgamo; iti vedanā,
iti vedanāya samudayo, iti vedanāya atthaṅgamo; iti saññā, iti saññāya
samudayo, iti saññāya atthaṅgamo; iti saṅkhārā, iti saṅkhārānaṃ
samudayo, iti saṅkhārānaṃ atthaṅgamo; iti viññāṇaṃ, iti viññāṇassa
samudayo, iti viññāṇassa atthaṅgamo’ti: evaṃ bhāvitā kho, bhikkhave,
aniccasaññā evaṃ bahulīkatā sabbaṃ kāmarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ
rūparāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ bhavarāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ avijjaṃ
pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanatī”ti.

“And how, bhikkhus, is the perception of impermanence developed and
cultivated so that it eliminates all sensual lust, eliminates all lust
for existence, eliminates all ignorance, and uproots all conceit ‘I am’?
‘Such is form, such its origin, such its passing away; such is feeling,
such its origin, such its passing away; such is perception, such its
origin, such its passing away; such are volitional formations, such
their origin, such their passing away; such is consciousness, such its
origin, such its passing away’: that is how the perception of
impermanence is developed and cultivated so that it eliminates all
sensual lust, eliminates all lust for existence, eliminates all
ignorance, and uproots all conceit ‘I am.’”

Bhava also appears prominently as one of the three āsavas (SN 45.163), one of the three taṇhā (SN 45.170), one of the three searches (esana, SN 45.161), one of the four yogas (AN 4.10, SN 45.172), one of the four floods (ogha, SN 45.171), one of the seven saṃyojanas as per the list given at AN 7.8, one of the seven anusayas (SN 45.175). Regarding all the above sets of phenomena, the ariya aṭṭhaṅgika magga is recommended in SN 45 for some or all of the following actions: abhiññā, full understanding (pariññā), complete destruction (parikkhaya), and pahāna.

In the case of the four yogas, the Yoga Sutta provides a little more detail:

“Cattārome, bhikkhave, yogā. Katame cattāro? Kāmayogo, bhavayogo, diṭṭhiyogo, avijjāyogo…

“Bhikkhus, there are these four bonds. What four? The bond of
sensuality, the bond of existence, the bond of views, and the bond of
ignorance…

Bhavayogo ca kathaṃ hoti? Idha, bhikkhave, ekacco bhavānaṃ samudayañca
atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti.
Tassa bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca
nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ appajānato yo bhavesu bhavarāgo bhavanandī
bhavasneho bhavamucchā bhavapipāsā bhavapariḷāho bhavajjhosānaṃ
bhavataṇhā sānuseti. Ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhavayogo…

And how is there the bond of existence? Here, someone does not
understand as they really are the origin and the passing away, the
gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to states of
existence. When one does not understand these things as they really are,
then lust for existence, delight in existence, affection for existence,
infatuation with existence, thirst for existence, passion for
existence, attachment to existence, and craving for existence lie deep
within one in regard to states of existence. This is called the bond of
existence…

Bhava­yoga­visaṃ­yogo ca kathaṃ hoti? Idha, bhikkhave, ekacco bhavānaṃ
samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ
pajānāti. Tassa bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca
nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ pajānato yo bhavesu bhavarāgo bhavanandī
bhavasneho bhavamucchā bhavapipāsā bhavapariḷāho bhavajjhosānaṃ
bhavataṇhā sā nānuseti. Ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhava­yoga­visaṃyogo.

And how is there the severance of the bond of existence? Here, someone
understands as they really are the origin and the passing away, the
gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to states of
existence. When one understands these things as they really are, then
lust for existence, delight in existence, affection for existence,
infatuation with existence, thirst for existence, passion for existence,
attachment to existence, and craving for existence do not lie within
one in regard to states of existence. This is called the severance of
the bond of existence.

atthāvuso, nevasaññānāsaññāyatanūpagā devā, idaṃ bhavānaṃ aggan”ti.

Friend, there are devas of the plane of neither-perception-nor-non-perception: this is the highest state
of existence.

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, appamattakopi gūtho duggandho hoti; evamevaṃ kho
ahaṃ, bhikkhave, appamattakampi bhavaṃ na vaṇṇemi, antamaso
accharāsaṅghātamattampi”.

Bhikkhus, just as even a small amount of excrement smells bad, in the
same way I do not recommend even a small amount of existence, even for
the time of s finger snap.

bhāvanā: cultivation by the mind, mental development, meditation - lit: calling into existence, producing.

Perhaps the closest we can get to a definition of the
word, or at least what the concept entails, is a depiction of what the
expression ‘the effort of/for development’ (bhāvanā·ppadhāna)
practically means, as given in the Padhāna Sutta:

“katamañca, bhikkhave, bhāvanāppadhānaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu
anuppannānaṃ kusalānaṃ dhammānaṃ uppādāya chandaṃ janeti vāyamati
vīriyaṃ ārabhati cittaṃ paggaṇhāti padahati. idaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave,
bhāvanāppadhānaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the effort for development? Here, bhikkhus, a
bhikkhu generates desire, exerts himself, arouses energy, exerts his
mind and strives for the arising of unarisen skillful mental states.
This is called, bhikkhus, the effort for development.

Other suttas also provide definitions of bhāvanā·bala (the power of development). One of those refers to a set of qualities that are often cited alongside bhāvanā, the seven bojjhaṅgas:

“katamañca, bhikkhave, bhāvanābalaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu
satisambojjhaṅgaṃ bhāveti vivekanissitaṃ virāganissitaṃ nirodhanissitaṃ
vosaggapariṇāmiṃ, dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgaṃ bhāveti…
vīriyasambojjhaṅgaṃ… pītisambojjhaṅgaṃ… passaddhisambojjhaṅgaṃ…
samādhisambojjhaṅgaṃ… upekkhāsambojjhaṅgaṃ bhāveti vivekanissitaṃ
virāganissitaṃ nirodhanissitaṃ vosaggapariṇāmiṃ. idaṃ vuccati,
bhikkhave, bhāvanābalaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the power of development? Here, bhikkhus, a
bhikkhu cultivates the enlightenment factor of mindfulness, that is
based on seclusion, dispassion, cessation, maturing in release, he
cultivates the enlightenment factor of discrimination of phenomena…
energy… exaltation… tranquility… concentration… equanimity, that
is based on seclusion, dispassion, cessation, maturing in release.
This, bhikkhus, is called the power of development.

The development of bojjhaṅgas is also cited in a description of how āsavas are abandoned by developing (āsavā bhāvanā pahātabbā), at MN 2. Another definition of bhāvanā·bala (the power of development) is given in the following sutta:

“katamañca, bhikkhave, bhāvanābalaṃ? idha, bhikkhave, bhikkhu…
paṭhamaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati… dutiyaṃ jhānaṃ… tatiyaṃ
jhānaṃ… catutthaṃ jhānaṃ upasampajja viharati. idaṃ vuccati,
bhikkhave, bhāvanābalaṃ.

And what, bhikkhus, is the power of development? Here, bhikkhus, a
bhikkhu… enters and dwells in the first jhana… the second jhana…
the third jhana… the fourth jhana. This, bhikkhus, is called the power
of development.

We also find in the suttas lists of what appears to be synonyms for bhāvanā. The related verb bhāveti is very often juxtaposed with bahulī·karoti (lit: ‘to make much of’, i.e. to practice frequently, repeatedly, seriously). AN 5.57 and MN 95 also juxtapose respectively āsevati (to frequent, visit; to practise, pursue, indulge, enjoy) and the related substantive āsevanā.
At AN 9.35, the verb svādhiṭṭhitaṃ adhiṭṭhāti (to undertake in a well undertaken way; ven. Thanissaro: ‘establishes himself firmly in it’; ven. Bodhi: ‘focuses on it well’) is also juxtaposed to bhāveti and the above two verbs. Some suttas (e.g. AN 8.1) also sometimes juxtapose the past participles yānī·kata (lit: ‘made a vehicle’), vatthu·kata (lit: ‘made the ground/basis’), anuṭṭhita (lit: ’stood along’, i.e. ‘carried out’), paricita (gathered, accumulated, increased; or scrutinized, acquainted with, constantly practised; ven. Bodhi translates consolidated), su·samāraddha (well undertaken).

An apparent antonym to bhāvanā is pahāna (abandoning):

kāyaduccaritaṃ pahāya kāyasucaritaṃ bhāveti, vacīduccaritaṃ pahāya
vacīsucaritaṃ bhāveti, manoduccaritaṃ pahāya manosucaritaṃ bhāveti.

having abandoned bodily misconduct, a bhikkhu develops good bodily
conduct; having abandoned verbal misconduct, he develops good verbal
conduct; having abandoned mental misconduct, he develops good mental
conduct.

The traditional treatment of the term sometimes consists in analyzing it in two categories: samatha·bhāvanā and vipassana·bhāvanā.
Although these exact compound words never actually occur in the suttas,
we do find the following statement in a number of them:

katame ca, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā bhāvetabbā? samatho ca vipassanā ca. ime, bhikkhave, dhammā abhiññā bhāvetabbā.

And what mental states are to be developed by direct knowledge? Tranquility and Insight. These, bhikkhus, are the mental states that are to be developed by direct knowledge.

The practice of samatha and vipassana also appears as a duty for a monk in the Piṇḍapātapārisuddhi Sutta:

“puna caparaṃ, sāriputta, bhikkhunā iti paṭisañcikkhitabbaṃ: ‘bhāvitā nu kho me samatho ca vipassanā cā’ti?
sace, sāriputta, bhikkhu paccavekkhamāno evaṃ jānāti: ‘abhāvitā kho me
samatho ca vipassanā cā’ti, tena, sāriputta, bhikkhunā
samathavipassanānaṃ bhāvanāya vāyamitabbaṃ.

Moreover, Sariputta, a bhikkhu should consider: ‘Are Tranquility and Insight developed in me? If, Sariputta, a bhikkhu examining [himself] knows thus: ‘Tranquility and Insight are not developed in me’, then that bhikkhu should make an effort to develop Tranquility and Insight.

sace pana, sāriputta, bhikkhu paccavekkhamāno evaṃ jānāti: ‘bhāvitā kho
me samatho ca vipassanā cā’ti, tena, sāriputta, bhikkhunā teneva
pītipāmojjena vihātabbaṃ ahorattānusikkhinā kusalesu dhammesu.

But if, Sariputta, a bhikkhu examining [himself] knows thus: ‘Tranquility and Insight are not developed in me’, then that bhikkhu should remain with that serene joy & exaltation, training day & night in advantageous mental states.

It is also explained at AN 2.31 that samatha leads to the bhavana of citta, which in turns leads to abandoning rāga, while vipassana leads to the bhavana of paññā, which in turns leads to abandoning avijjā. SN 43.2 explains that they lead to the destruction of the three akusala·mūlas, and MN 73 shows in detail that they lead to the six abhiññā and arahatta. In AN 4.170, ven. Ananda explains that everyone who declares to him having become an arahant has achieved so by practicing both samatha and vipassana in one of four ways.

However, as the Upaka Sutta makes it clear, what is said ‘to be developed’ (bhāvetabba) is not at all restricted to samatha·bhāvanā and vipassana·bhāvanā, but includes at large whatever is kusala:

itipidaṃ kusalaṃ bhāvetabba

That which is wholesome should be developed

That being said, when only one category of phenomena is mentioned as to be developed, it is often the 7 bojjhaṅgas, as we have seen above at AN 2.12 and MN 2, or sometimes kāyagatāsati:

“Yassa kassaci, bhikkhave, mahāsamuddo cetasā phuṭo antogadhā tassa
kunnadiyo yā kāci samuddaṅgamā; evamevaṃ, bhikkhave, yassa kassaci
kāyagatā sati bhāvitā bahulīkatā antogadhā tassa kusalā dhammā ye keci
vijjābhāgiyā”ti.

“Mendicants, anyone who brings into their mind the great ocean includes
all of the streams that run into it. In the same way, anyone who has
developed and cultivated mindfulness of the body includes all of the
skillful qualities that play a part in realization.”

Some suttas mention development in body and in mind.
Some suttas, such as the Loṇakapalla Sutta, even add development in
virtue (sīla) and wisdom (paññā):

Idha, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo bhāvitakāyo hoti bhāvitasīlo bhāvitacitto bhāvitapañño aparitto mahatto appamāṇavihārī.

There is the case where a certain individual is developed in
[contemplating] the body, developed in virtue, developed in mind,
developed in discernment: unrestricted, large-hearted, dwelling with the
immeasurable.

The Mahā Saccaka Sutta provides explanations as to what development in body and mind may mean:

“kathañca, aggivessana, abhāvitakāyo ca hoti abhāvitacitto ca? idha,
aggivessana, assutavato puthujjanassa uppajjati sukhā vedanā. so sukhāya
vedanāya phuṭṭho samāno sukhasārāgī ca hoti sukhasārāgitañca āpajjati.
tassa sā sukhā vedanā nirujjhati. sukhāya vedanāya nirodhā uppajjati
dukkhā vedanā. so dukkhāya vedanāya phuṭṭho samāno socati kilamati
paridevati urattāḷiṃ kandati sammohaṃ āpajjati. tassa kho esā,
aggivessana, uppannāpi sukhā vedanā cittaṃ pariyādāya tiṭṭhati
abhāvitattā kāyassa, uppannāpi dukkhā vedanā cittaṃ pariyādāya tiṭṭhati
abhāvitattā cittassa. yassa kassaci, aggivessana, evaṃ ubhatopakkhaṃ
uppannāpi sukhā vedanā cittaṃ pariyādāya tiṭṭhati abhāvitattā kāyassa,
uppannāpi dukkhā vedanā cittaṃ pariyādāya tiṭṭhati abhāvitattā cittassa,
evaṃ kho, aggivessana, abhāvitakāyo ca hoti abhāvitacitto ca.

“How, Aggivessana, is one undeveloped in body and undeveloped in mind?
Here, Aggivessana, pleasant feeling arises in an untaught ordinary
person. Touched by that pleasant feeling, he lusts after pleasure and
continues to lust after pleasure. That pleasant feeling of his ceases.
With the cessation of the pleasant feeling, painful feeling arises.
Touched by that painful feeling, he sorrows, grieves, and laments, he
weeps beating his breast and becomes distraught. When that pleasant
feeling has arisen in him, it invades his mind and remains because body
is not developed. And when that painful feeling has arisen in him, it
invades his mind and remains because mind is not developed. Anyone in
whom, in this double manner, arisen pleasant feeling invades his mind
and remains because body is not developed, and arisen painful feeling
invades his mind and remains because mind is not developed, is thus
undeveloped in body because mind is not developed, is thus undeveloped
in body and undeveloped in mind.

“kathañca, aggivessana, bhāvitakāyo ca hoti bhāvitacitto ca? idha,
aggivessana, sutavato ariyasāvakassa uppajjati sukhā vedanā. so sukhāya
vedanāya phuṭṭho samāno na sukhasārāgī ca hoti, na sukhasārāgitañca
āpajjati. tassa sā sukhā vedanā nirujjhati. sukhāya vedanāya nirodhā
uppajjati dukkhā vedanā. so dukkhāya vedanāya phuṭṭho samāno na socati
na kilamati na paridevati na urattāḷiṃ kandati na sammohaṃ āpajjati.
tassa kho esā, aggivessana, uppannāpi sukhā vedanā cittaṃ na pariyādāya
tiṭṭhati bhāvitattā kāyassa, uppannāpi dukkhā vedanā cittaṃ na
pariyādāya tiṭṭhati bhāvitattā cittassa. yassa kassaci, aggivessana,
evaṃ ubhatopakkhaṃ uppannāpi sukhā vedanā cittaṃ na pariyādāya tiṭṭhati
bhāvitattā kāyassa, uppannāpi dukkhā vedanā cittaṃ na pariyādāya
tiṭṭhati bhāvitattā cittassa. evaṃ kho, aggivessana, bhāvitakāyo ca hoti
bhāvitacitto cā”ti.

“And how, Aggivessana, is one developed in body and developed in mind?
Here, Aggivessana, pleasant feeling arises in a well-taught noble
disciple. Touched by that pleasant feeling, he does not lust after
pleasure or continue to lust after pleasure. That pleasant feeling of
his ceases. With the cessation of the pleasant feeling, painful feeling
arises. Touched by that painful feeling, he does not sorrow, grieve, and
lament, he does not weep beating his breast and become distraught. When
that pleasant feeling has arisen in him, it does not invade his mind
and remain because body is developed. And when that painful feeling has
arisen in him, it does not invade his mind and remain because mind is
developed. Anyone in whom, in this double manner, arisen pleasant
feeling does not invade his mind and remain because body is developed,
and arisen painful feeling does not invade his mind and remain because
mind is developed, is thus developed in body and developed in mind.”

A number of suttas outline what are the consequences
of the development of the mind or lack thereof. The Anāgatabhaya Sutta
explains how lack of development brings about the corruption and
disappearance of the Dhamma:

bhavissanti, bhikkhave, bhikkhū anāgatamaddhānaṃ abhāvitakāyā
abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. te abhāvitakāyā samānā
abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā aññe upasampādessanti. tepi na
sakkhissanti vinetuṃ adhisīle adhicitte adhipaññāya. tepi bhavissanti
abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. te abhāvitakāyā
samānā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā aññe upasampādessanti.
tepi na sakkhissanti vinetuṃ adhisīle adhicitte adhipaññāya. tepi
bhavissanti abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. iti
kho, bhikkhave, dhammasandosā vinayasandoso; vinayasandosā
dhammasandoso…

“There will be, in the course of the future, monks undeveloped in body,
undeveloped in virtue, undeveloped in mind, undeveloped in discernment.
They—being undeveloped in body, undeveloped in virtue, undeveloped in
mind, undeveloped in discernment—will give full ordination to others and
will not be able to discipline them in heightened virtue, heightened
mind, heightened discernment. These too will then be undeveloped in
body… virtue… mind… discernment. They—being undeveloped in body… virtue…
mind… discernment—will give full ordination to still others and will
not be able to discipline them in heightened virtue, heightened mind,
heightened discernment. These too will then be undeveloped in body…
virtue… mind… discernment. Thus from corrupt Dhamma comes corrupt
discipline; from corrupt discipline, corrupt Dhamma…

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bhavissanti bhikkhū anāgatamaddhānaṃ
abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. te abhāvitakāyā
samānā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā aññesaṃ nissayaṃ
dassanti. tepi na sakkhissanti vinetuṃ adhisīle adhicitte adhipaññāya.
tepi bhavissanti abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā.
te abhāvitakāyā samānā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā aññesaṃ
nissayaṃ dassanti. tepi na sakkhissanti vinetuṃ adhisīle adhicitte
adhipaññāya. tepi bhavissanti abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā
abhāvitapaññā. iti kho, bhikkhave, dhammasandosā vinayasandoso;
vinayasandosā dhammasandoso…

“And again, there will be in the course of the future monks undeveloped
in body, undeveloped in virtue, undeveloped in mind, undeveloped in
discernment. They—being undeveloped in body, undeveloped in virtue,
undeveloped in mind, undeveloped in discernment—will take on others as
students and will not be able to discipline them in heightened virtue,
heightened mind, heightened discernment. These too will then be
undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment. They—being undeveloped
in body… virtue… mind… discernment—will take on still others as students
and will not be able to discipline them in heightened virtue,
heightened mind, heightened discernment. These too will then be
undeveloped in body… virtue… mind… discernment. Thus from corrupt Dhamma
comes corrupt discipline; from corrupt discipline, corrupt Dhamma…

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bhavissanti bhikkhū anāgatamaddhānaṃ
abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. te abhāvitakāyā
samānā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā abhidhammakathaṃ
vedallakathaṃ kathentā kaṇhadhammaṃ okkamamānā na bujjhissanti. iti kho,
bhikkhave, dhammasandosā vinayasandoso; vinayasandosā dhammasandoso…

“And again, there will be in the course of the future monks undeveloped
in body… virtue… mind… discernment. They—being undeveloped in body…
virtue… mind… discernment—when giving a talk on higher Dhamma or a talk
composed of questions and answers, will fall into dark mental states
without being aware of it. Thus from corrupt Dhamma comes corrupt
discipline; from corrupt discipline, corrupt Dhamma…

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bhavissanti bhikkhū anāgatamaddhānaṃ
abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. te abhāvitakāyā
samānā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā ye te suttantā
tathāgatabhāsitā gambhīrā gambhīratthā lokuttarā suññatāppaṭisaṃyuttā,
tesu bhaññamānesu na sussūsissanti, na sotaṃ odahissanti, na aññā cittaṃ
upaṭṭhapessanti, na ca te dhamme uggahetabbaṃ pariyāpuṇitabbaṃ
maññissanti. ye pana te suttantā kavitā kāveyyā cittakkharā
cittabyañjanā bāhirakā sāvakabhāsitā, tesu bhaññamānesu sussūsissanti,
sotaṃ odahissanti, aññā cittaṃ upaṭṭhapessanti, te ca dhamme
uggahetabbaṃ pariyāpuṇitabbaṃ maññissanti. iti kho, bhikkhave,
dhammasandosā vinayasandoso; vinayasandosā dhammasandoso…

“And again, there will be in the course of the future monks undeveloped
in body… virtue… mind… discernment. They—being undeveloped in body…
virtue… mind… discernment—will not listen when discourses that are words
of the Tathagata—deep, profound, transcendent, connected with the
Void—are being recited. They will not lend ear, will not set their
hearts on knowing them, will not regard these teachings as worth
grasping or mastering. But they will listen when discourses that are
literary works—the works of poets, elegant in sound, elegant in
rhetoric, the work of outsiders, words of disciples—are recited. They
will lend ear and set their hearts on knowing them. They will regard
these teachings as worth grasping and mastering. Thus from corrupt
Dhamma comes corrupt discipline; from corrupt discipline, corrupt
Dhamma…

“puna caparaṃ, bhikkhave, bhavissanti bhikkhū anāgatamaddhānaṃ
abhāvitakāyā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā. te abhāvitakāyā
samānā abhāvitasīlā abhāvitacittā abhāvitapaññā therā bhikkhū bāhulikā
bhavissanti sāthalikā okkamane pubbaṅgamā paviveke nikkhittadhurā, na
vīriyaṃ ārabhissanti appattassa pattiyā anadhigatassa adhigamāya
asacchikatassa sacchikiriyāya. tesaṃ pacchimā janatā diṭṭhānugatiṃ
āpajjissati. sāpi bhavissati bāhulikā sāthalikā okkamane pubbaṅgamā
paviveke nikkhittadhurā, na vīriyaṃ ārabhissati appattassa pattiyā
anadhigatassa adhigamāya asacchikatassa sacchikiriyāya. iti kho,
bhikkhave, dhammasandosā vinayasandoso; vinayasandosā dhammasandoso.

“And again, there will be in the course of the future monks undeveloped
in body… virtue… mind… discernment. They—being undeveloped in body…
virtue… mind… discernment—will become elders living in luxury,
lethargic, foremost in falling back, shirking the duties of solitude.
They will not make an effort for the attaining of the as-yet-unattained,
the reaching of the as-yet-unreached, the realization of the
as-yet-unrealized. They will become an example for later generations,
who will become luxurious in their living, lethargic, foremost in
falling back, shirking the duties of solitude, and who will not make an
effort for the attaining of the as-yet-unattained, the reaching of the
as-yet-unreached, the realization of the as-yet-unrealized. Thus from
corrupt Dhamma comes corrupt discipline; from corrupt discipline,
corrupt Dhamma.

The Loṇakapalla Sutta explains what difference development makes for the future results of actions:

“kathaṃrūpassa, bhikkhave, puggalassa appamattakampi pāpakammaṃ kataṃ
tamenaṃ nirayaṃ upaneti? idha pana, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo
abhāvitakāyo hoti abhāvitasīlo abhāvitacitto abhāvitapañño paritto
appātumo appadukkhavihārī. evarūpassa, bhikkhave, puggalassa
appamattakampi pāpakammaṃ kataṃ tamenaṃ nirayaṃ upaneti.

What kind of person does a trivial bad deed, but it lands them in hell? A
person who hasn’t developed their physical endurance, ethics, mind, or
wisdom. They’re small-minded and mean-spirited, living in suffering.
That kind of person does a trivial bad deed, but it lands them in hell.

“kathaṃrūpassa, bhikkhave, puggalassa tādisaṃyeva appamattakaṃ
pāpakammaṃ kataṃ diṭṭhadhammavedanīyaṃ hoti, nā’ṇupi khāyati, kiṃ
bahudeva? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco puggalo bhāvitakāyo hoti bhāvitasīlo
bhāvitacitto bhāvitapañño aparitto mahatto appamāṇavihārī. evarūpassa,
bhikkhave, puggalassa tādisaṃyeva appamattakaṃ pāpakammaṃ kataṃ
diṭṭhadhammavedanīyaṃ hoti, nāṇupi khāyati, kiṃ bahudeva.

What kind of person does the same trivial bad deed, but experiences it
in the present life, without even a bit left over, not to speak of a
lot? A person who has developed their physical endurance, ethics, mind,
and wisdom. They’re not small-minded, but are big-hearted, living
without limits. That kind of person does the same trivial bad deed, but
experiences it in the present life, without even a bit left over, not to
speak of a lot.

The Bhāvanā Sutta compares the results of lack of
development to the case where a hen does not take care of her eggs, and
development to the case where a hen does.

“bhāvanaṃ ananuyuttassa, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno viharato kiñcāpi
evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ
vimucceyyā’ti, atha khvassa neva anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimuccati. taṃ
kissa hetu? ‘abhāvitattā’tissa vacanīyaṃ. kissa abhāvitattā? catunnaṃ
satipaṭṭhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ sammappadhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ iddhipādānaṃ,
pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ, pañcannaṃ balānaṃ, sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ,
ariyassa aṭṭhaṅgikassa maggassa.

“Mendicants, when a mendicant is not committed to development,
they might wish: ‘If only my mind were freed from the defilements by not
grasping!’ Even so, their mind is not freed from defilements by not
grasping. Why is that? It’s because they’re undeveloped. Undeveloped in
what? The four kinds of mindfulness meditation, the four right efforts,
the four bases of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers,
the seven awakening factors, and the noble eightfold path.

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, kukkuṭiyā aṇḍāni aṭṭha vā dasa vā dvādasa vā.
tānassu kukkuṭiyā na sammā adhisayitāni, na sammā pariseditāni, na sammā
paribhāvitāni. kiñcāpi tassā kukkuṭiyā evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata
me kukkuṭapotakā pādanakhasikhāya vā mukhatuṇḍakena vā aṇḍakosaṃ
padāletvā sotthinā abhinibbhijjeyyun’ti, atha kho abhabbāva te
kukkuṭapotakā pādanakhasikhāya vā mukhatuṇḍakena vā aṇḍakosaṃ padāletvā
sotthinā abhinibbhijjituṃ. taṃ kissa hetu? tathā hi, bhikkhave,
kukkuṭiyā aṇḍāni na sammā adhisayitāni, na sammā pariseditāni, na sammā
paribhāvitāni. evamevaṃ kho, bhikkhave, bhāvanaṃ ananuyuttassa
bhikkhuno viharato kiñcāpi evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me anupādāya
āsavehi cittaṃ vimucceyyā’ti, atha khvassa neva anupādāya āsavehi
cittaṃ vimuccati. taṃ kissa hetu? ‘abhāvitattā’tissa vacanīyaṃ. kissa
abhāvitattā? catunnaṃ satipaṭṭhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ sammappadhānānaṃ,
catunnaṃ iddhipādānaṃ, pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ, pañcannaṃ balānaṃ,
sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ, ariyassa aṭṭhaṅgikassa maggassa

Suppose there was a chicken with eight or ten or twelve eggs. But she
had not properly sat on them to keep them warm and incubated. Even if
that chicken might wish: ‘If only my chicks could break out of the
eggshell with their claws and beak and hatch safely!’ Still they can’t
break out and hatch safely. Why is that? Because she has not properly
sat on them to keep them warm and incubated. In the same way, when a
mendicant is not committed to development, they might wish: ‘If
only my mind was freed from the defilements by not grasping!’ Even so,
their mind is not freed from defilements by not grasping. Why is that?
It’s because they’re undeveloped. Undeveloped in what? The four kinds of
mindfulness meditation, the four right efforts, the four bases of
psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening
factors, and the noble eightfold path.

“bhāvanaṃ anuyuttassa, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno viharato kiñcāpi na
evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ
vimucceyyā’ti, atha khvassa anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimuccati. taṃ
kissa hetu? ‘bhāvitattā’tissa vacanīyaṃ. kissa bhāvitattā? catunnaṃ
satipaṭṭhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ sammappadhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ iddhipādānaṃ,
pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ, pañcannaṃ balānaṃ, sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ,
ariyassa aṭṭhaṅgikassa maggassa.

When a mendicant is committed to development, they might not
wish: ‘If only my mind was freed from the defilements by not grasping!’
Even so, their mind is freed from defilements by not grasping. Why is
that? It’s because they’re developed. Developed in what? The four kinds
of mindfulness meditation, the four right efforts, the four bases of
psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening
factors, and the noble eightfold path.

“seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, kukkuṭiyā aṇḍāni aṭṭha vā dasa vā dvādasa vā.
tānassu kukkuṭiyā sammā adhisayitāni, sammā pariseditāni, sammā
paribhāvitāni. kiñcāpi tassā kukkuṭiyā na evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho
vata me kukkuṭapotakā pādanakhasikhāya vā mukhatuṇḍakena vā aṇḍakosaṃ
padāletvā sotthinā abhinibbhijjeyyun’ti, atha kho bhabbāva te
kukkuṭapotakā pādanakhasikhāya vā mukhatuṇḍakena vā aṇḍakosaṃ padāletvā
sotthinā abhinibbhijjituṃ. taṃ kissa hetu? tathā hi, bhikkhave,
kukkuṭiyā aṇḍāni sammā adhisayitāni, sammā pariseditāni, sammā
paribhāvitāni. evamevaṃ kho, bhikkhave, bhāvanaṃ anuyuttassa
bhikkhuno viharato kiñcāpi na evaṃ icchā uppajjeyya: ‘aho vata me
anupādāya āsavehi cittaṃ vimucceyyā’ti, atha khvassa anupādāya āsavehi
cittaṃ vimuccati. taṃ kissa hetu? ‘bhāvitattā’tissa vacanīyaṃ. kissa
bhāvitattā? catunnaṃ satipaṭṭhānānaṃ, catunnaṃ sammappadhānānaṃ,
catunnaṃ iddhipādānaṃ, pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ, pañcannaṃ balānaṃ,
sattannaṃ bojjhaṅgānaṃ, ariyassa aṭṭhaṅgikassa maggassa.

Suppose there was a chicken with eight or ten or twelve eggs. And she
properly sat on them to keep them warm and incubated. Even if that
chicken doesn’t wish: ‘If only my chicks could break out of the eggshell
with their claws and beak and hatch safely!’ But still they can break
out and hatch safely. Why is that? Because she properly sat on them to
keep them warm and incubated. In the same way, when a mendicant is
committed to development, they might not wish: ‘If only my mind
was freed from the defilements by not grasping!’ Even so, their mind is
freed from defilements by not grasping. Why is that? It’s because
they’re developed. Developed in what? The four kinds of mindfulness
meditation, the four right efforts, the four bases of psychic power, the
five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening factors, and the
noble eightfold path.

The Akammaniya Vagga
explains that an undeveloped mind is unwieldy, harmful, brings
suffering, whereas a developed one is workable, beneficial, and brings
happiness.

Between AN 1.394 and AN 1.574, it is said about a bhikkhu who develops any of the 181 practices mentioned that he ‘is
called a mendicant who does not lack absorption, who follows the
Teacher’s instructions, who responds to advice, and who does not eat the
country’s alms in vain.’ (arittajjhāno viharati, satthusāsanakaro
ovādapatikaro, amoghaṃ raṭṭhapiṇḍaṃ bhuñjati’).

bhavarāga: [bhava+rāga]

craving for (a state of) existence, for life, for becoming, for the process of existence, for repeated existence.

Bhava·taṇhā is generally regarded as a synonym.
Bhava·rāga is one of the seven anusayas (AN 7.11). It also one in a list of seven saṃyojanas (AN 7.8).

One consequence of bhava·rāga is mentioned in the Rūpārāma Sutta:

bhavarāgaparetebhi,
bhavarāgānusārībhi.
māradheyyānupannehi,
nāyaṃ dhammo susambudho.

This Dhamma isn’t easily understood
By those afflicted with lust for existence,
Who flow along in the stream of existence,
Deeply mired in Māra’s realm.

As one might have expected, it is explained in the Yoga Sutta that the cause for the arising of bhava·rāga is not discerning the real characteristics of bhava, and the cause for preventing their arising is the presence of such a discernment:

“bhavayogo ca kathaṃ hoti? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco bhavānaṃ samudayañca
atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ nappajānāti.
tassa bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca
nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ appajānato yo bhavesu bhavarāgo bhavanandī
bhavasneho bhavamucchā bhavapipāsā bhavapariḷāho bhavajjhosānaṃ
bhavataṇhā sānuseti. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhavayogo. iti kāmayogo
bhavayogo.

And how is there the bond of existence? Here, someone does not
understand as they really are the origin and the passing away, the
gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to states of
existence. When one does not understand these things as they really are,
then lust for existence, delight in existence, affection for existence,
infatuation with existence, thirst for existence, passion for
existence, attachment to existence, and craving for existence lie deep
within one in regard to states of existence. This is called the bond of
existence.

…

…

“bhavayogavisaṃyogo ca kathaṃ hoti? idha, bhikkhave, ekacco bhavānaṃ
samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ
pajānāti. tassa bhavānaṃ samudayañca atthaṅgamañca assādañca ādīnavañca
nissaraṇañca yathābhūtaṃ pajānato yo bhavesu bhavarāgo bhavanandī
bhavasneho bhavamucchā bhavapipāsā bhavapariḷāho bhavajjhosānaṃ
bhavataṇhā sā nānuseti. ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, bhavayogavisaṃyogo. iti
kāmayogavisaṃyogo bhavayogavisaṃyogo.

And how is there the severance of the bond of existence? Here, someone
understands as they really are the origin and the passing away, the
gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to states of
existence. When one understands these things as they really are, then
lust for existence, delight in existence, affection for existence,
infatuation with existence, thirst for existence, passion for existence,
attachment to existence, and craving for existence do not lie within
one in regard to states of existence. This is called the severance of
the bond of existence.

The Aniccasaññā Sutta explains that cultivating anicca·saññā is the way to eliminate bhava·rāga

“aniccasaññā, bhikkhave, bhāvitā bahulīkatā sabbaṃ kāmarāgaṃ
pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ rūparāgaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ bhavarāgaṃ
pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ avijjaṃ pariyādiyati, sabbaṃ asmimānaṃ samūhanati”.

Bhikkhus, when the perception of impermanence is developed and
cultivated, it eliminates all sensual lust, it eliminates all lust for
existence, it eliminates all ignorance, it uproots all conceit ‘I am.’