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English Section

The
Home of Pali

U Razinda
Dept. of Ancient Indian & Asian Studies,
Nalanda, India

From:
“The Light of Majjhimadesa” - Volume (1), U Chandramani Foundation, 2001

Source:
http://www.rakhapura.com

Pali, in which only
the Buddha delivered his noble messages, appears to have been hallowed as
the text of the Buddhavacana. The language of the Buddhavacana is called
Pali or Magadhi and sometimes Suddha-Magadhi, presumably in order to
distinguish it from Ardha-Magadhi, the language of Jaina Canons. Magadhi
means the language or dialect current in the Magadha. In Pali Lexicon, the
definition of Pali is given thus: 1 pa paleti,
rakkhati ‘ ti pali. Since it preserves the Buddhavacana (words) in the
form of the sacred text, it is called Pali. In fact, the word Pali
signifies only “text” “sacred text”. 2

According to the tradition current in
Theravada Buddhist countries, Pali is Magadhi, Magadhanirutti,
Magadhikabhasa, that is to say, the language of the region in which
Buddhism had arisen. The Buddhistic tradition makes the further claim that
the Pali Tipitaka is composed in the language used by the Buddha himself.
3 For this reason Magadhi is also called Mulabhasa
4 as the basic language in which the words of the
Buddha were originally fixed. However, for Pali now arises the question,
which region of India was the home of that language which was the basis of
Pali.

Westergrd 5 and E.Kuhn
6 consider Pali to be the dialect of Ujjayini, because
it stands closest to the language of the Asokan-inscriptions of Girnar
(Guzerat), and also because the dialect of Ujjayini is said to have been
the mother-tongue of Mahinda who preached Buddhism in Ceylon (Sri Lanka).
R.O. Franke had a similar opinion by different means 7;
and he finally reached the conclusion that the original home of Pali was
“a territory, which could not have been too narrow, situated about the
region from the middle to the Western Vindhya ranges”. Thus it is not
improbable that Ujjayini was the centre of its region of expansion. Sten
Konow 8 too has decided in favour of the Vindhya region
as the home of Pali.

Oldenberg (1879) 9 and
E.Muller (1884) 10 consider the Kalinga country to be
the home of Pali. Oldenberg thinks that Buddhism, and with it’s the
Tipitaka, was introduced into Ceylon rather in course of an intercourse
between the island and the neighboring continent extending over a long
period. However, E.MUller bases his conclusion on the observation that the
oldest settlements in Ceylon could have been founded only by the people of
Kalinga, the area on the mainland opposite Ceylon and not by people from
Bengal and Bihar.

Maurice Winternitz 11
is of the opinion that Buddha himself spoke the dialect of his native
province Kosala (Oudh) and it was most likely in this same dialect that he
first began to proclaim his doctrine. Later on, however, he wandered and
taught in Magadha (Bihar) he probably preached in the dialect of this
province. When in course of time the doctrine spread over a large area,
the monks of various districts preached each in his own dialect. It is
probable that some monks coming from Brahmin circles also attempted to
translate the speeches of Buddha into Sanskrit verses. However, the Buddha
himself absolutely rejected it, and forbade learning his teachings in any
other languages except Magadhi. Here it is related 12,
how two Bhikkhus complained to the Master that the members of the order
were of various origins, and that they distorted the words of the Buddha
by their own dialect (Sakaya niruttiya). They, therefore, proposed that
the words of the Buddha should be translated into Sanskrit verses
(Chandaso). The Buddha, however, refused to grant the request and added:
Anujanamibhikkhave sakaya niruttiya buddhavacanam pariyapunitum. Rhys
Davids and Oldenberg 13 translate this passage by “I
allow you, oh brethren, to learn the words of the Buddha each in his own
dialect”. This interpretation, however, is not accorded with that of
Buddhaghosa, according to whom it has to be translated by “I ordain the
words of the Buddha to be learnt in his own language (i.e., in Magadhi,
the language used by Buddha himself)”. In fact, the explanation given by
Buddhaghosa is more acceptable, because neither the two monks nor Buddha
himself have thought of preaching in different dialects in different
cases.

Magahi or Magadhi 14 is
spoken in the districts of Patna, Gaya, Hazaribagh and also in the western
part of Palamau, parts of Monghyr and Bhagalpur. On its eastern frontier
Magahi meets Bengali. Dr.Grierson called the dialect of this region
Eastern Magahi (Magadhi). He (Dr.Grierson) has named western Magadhi
speeches as Bihari. In this time he includes three dialects, Magahi
(Magadhi), Maithili and Bhojpuri. Dr.Grierson, after a comparative study
of the grammars of the three dialects, had decided Maithili, Magahi and
Bhojpuri as three forms of a single speech. There are four reasons for
terming them as Bihari, viz.,

Between Eastern Hindi and Bengali have
certain characteristics, which are common to the three dialects.
It becomes a provincial language like
Gujarati, Punjabi, Marathi, etc.
The name is appropriate from the
historical point of view. Bihar was so named after so many Buddhist
Viharas in the state. Ancient Bihar language was probably the language
of early Buddhists and Jainas.
It is not a fact that in Bihar there is
no literature. In Maithili we have extant ancient literature.

Though Hindi is highly respected as a
literary language in Biharyetthe Maithili, Magahi and Bhojpuri languages
are deeply entrenched in the emotions of the people. The fact is that
Bihari is a speech distinct from Eastern Hindi and has to be classified
with Bengali, Oriya and Assamese as they share common descent from
Magadhi, Prakrit and Apabhransha. It is clear 15 that
an uneducated and illiterate Bihari when he goes to Bengal begins to speak
good Bengali with little effort but ordinarily it is not easy for an
educated Bihari to speak correct Hindi. Dr.Grierson has inclined to decide
that Magadhi was a dialect of Magadha (Bihar) and some parts of West
Bengal and Uttar Pradesh.

The area covered by the Buddha’s
missionary activities included Bihar and Uttar Pradesh including the Nepal
Tarai. So it may be assumed that the Buddha spoke in a dialect or dialects
current in those regions. Welhelm Geiger 16 considers
that Pali was indeed on pure Magadhi, but was yet a form of the popular
speech which was based on Magadhi and which was used by Buddha himself. It
may be imagined that the Buddha might choose a widespread language which
was used or understood by common people in the region, because through
which he could propagate his noble teachings to the common people. Thus,
Pali or the dialect of Magadha was more probably the language of the
common people and also a lingua franca of a large region including mainly
Magadha (Bihar).

References

(1). Dhamma Annual - Vol. 19, No. 10-11
(June-1995).
(2). Cf. the expression iti pi pali, eg., th 2 co. 618, where pali=patho.
Further, pali “sacred text” as distinct from attha katha, Dpvs.=20-20;
Mhvs.=33-100; Sdhs. (Saddhammasamgaha, ed. by Saddhananda); Jpts. (Journal
of the Pali Text Society) 1890, p. 535.
(3). Cf. Buddhaghosa: etha saka nirutti nama sammasambuddhena vuttappakaro
magadhiko voharo, Comm. to Cullavagga V 33-1. see samantapasadika, ed. by
Saya U Pye, IV416.(10)
(4). Sdhs. (Saddhammasamgaha, ed. by Saddhananda). Jpts. (Journal of the
Pali Text Society) 1890, pp.55(23), 56(21), 57(19).
(5). Uber dem altesten Zeitram der indischen Geschi chte, p. 87.
(6). Beitr., p. 6ff. Cf. Mur, original Sanskrit texts, II, p. 356.
(7). Pali and Sanskrit, p. 131 ff. By Pali I, of course, always understand
what has been called “Literary PAW’ by Franke.
(8). The home of Paiuaci, ZDMG (Zeitschrift der deutschen Morgenlandischen
Desell-schaft).
(9). The Vinaya Pitaka I, London 1879, p. L ff.
(10). Simplified Grammar of the Pali language, London 1884, p. III.
(11). History of Indian Literature, Vol. II, p. 13.
(12). Cullavagga V. 33 1=Vin. II, 139.
(13). Vinaya Texts III=Sacred Books of the East, XX, p.151.
(14). The Comprehensive History of Bihar, Vol. I, Part I, p. 91, edited by
Dr. Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha.
(15). Ibid. P. 89-90
(16). Pali Literature and Language, p. 6.

The Pali Language and Literature

From: Pali Text Society,
http://www.palitext.com/

Pali is the name given to the language of
the texts of Theravada Buddhism, although the commentarial tradition of
the Theravadins states that the language of the canon is Magadhi, the
language spoken by Gotama Buddha. The term Pali originally referred to a
canonical text or passage rather than to a language and its current use is
based on a misunderstanding which occurred several centuries ago. The
language of the Theravadin canon is a version of a dialect of Middle
Indo-Aryan, not Magadhi, created by the homogenisation of the dialects in
which the teachings of the Buddha were orally recorded and transmitted.
This became necessary as Buddhism was transmitted far beyond the area of
its origin and as the Buddhist monastic order codified his teachings.

The tradition recorded in the ancient
Sinhalese chronicles states that the Theravadin canon was written down in
the first century B.C.E. The language of the canon continued to be
influenced by commentators and grammarians and by the native languages of
the countries in which Theravada Buddhism became established over many
centuries. The oral transmission of the Pali canon continued for several
centuries after the death of the Buddha, even after the texts were first
preserved in writing. No single script was ever developed for the language
of the canon; scribes used the scripts of their native languages to
transcribe the texts. Although monasteries in South India are known to
have been important centres of Buddhist learning in the early part of this
millennium, no manuscripts from anywhere in India except Nepal have
survived. Almost all the manuscripts available to scholars since the PTS
(Pali Text Society) began can be dated to the 18th or 19th centuries C.E.
and the textual traditions of the different Buddhist countries represented
by these manuscripts show much evidence of interweaving. The pattern of
recitation and validation of texts by councils of monks has continued into
the 20th century.

The main division of the Pali canon as it
exists today is threefold, although the Pali commentarial tradition refers
to several different ways of classification. The three divisions are known
as pi.takas and the canon itself as the Tipitaka; the significance of the
term pitaka, literally “basket”, is not clear. The text of the canon is
divided, according to this system, into Vinaya (monastic rules), Suttas
(discourses) and Abhidhamma (analysis of the teaching). The PTS edition of
the Tipitaka contains fifty-six books (including indexes), and it cannot
therefore be considered to be a homogenous entity, comparable to the
Christian Bible or Muslim Koran. Although Buddhists refer to the Tipitaka
as Buddha-vacana, “the word of the Buddha”, there are texts within the
canon either attributed to specific monks or related to an event
post-dating the time of the Buddha or that can be shown to have been
composed after that time. The first four nikayas (collections) of the
Sutta-pitaka contain sermons in which the basic doctrines of the Buddha’s
teaching are expounded either briefly or in detail.

Buddhism: Language and Literature

Peter
Friedlander

Source: “Buddhist
Studies - Lecture Notes”, School of Social Sciences, La Trobe University,
Australia,

http://www.latrobe.edu.au/asianstudies/Buddha/index.html

Introduction

This is the last chapter on the
pre-Mahayana in this book. It covers a period from around the 6th century
BCE to the 2nd century CE. Within the scope of this chapter I will attempt
to simply sketch out various key aspects of Buddhist language and
literature over a period of eight centuries. This will be rather more an
investigation of the issues raised by the these topics than a detailed
study.

Language

Three key terms which we need to consider
are Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit. We will also need to consider the terms
Magadhi and Ardha-Magadhi. What does Sanskrit mean? It has a root meaning
which does not actually refer to a language as such but to the concept of
something being refined or purified. The term Sanskrit can be found in
Buddhist texts used in the sense of meaning that which is refined as
opposed to that which is natural which is called Prakrit. Likewise in
Samkhya the principle of Prakriti is nature, hence Prakrit is
that which is natural. So in a sense then Sanskrit does not refer to a
language as such but to that which is refined or purified speech.

The languages in which the Vedas are
written are not quite the same as classical Sanskrit which was
standardised by Panini in about the 2nd century BCE. Despite the
variations in the linguistic forms from the Rig Veda, which is
considerably different from classical Sanskrit, the languages of the
majority of Indian high cultural texts are all in forms of Sanskrit. Some
of the later texts, such as the Puranas and the Epics are often not
in very refined Sanskrit, but they are still in Sanskrit. Also from around
the second century BCE onwards Buddhist texts began to be produced in
Sanskrit. These texts are often in a kind of Sanskrit mixed with
vernacular forms and which is often referred to as ‘Buddhist Hybrid
Sanskrit’. They are hybrid as they are a mix of Sanskrit and Prakrit. So
you should bear in mind that the term Sanskrit does not simply refer to
the classical standard form of the language but rather to a group of
related language forms which share a common heritage in grammar,
vocabulary and syntax.

In a similar manner the term Prakrit,
which means ‘natural [speech]’ refers to a group of language forms. Indeed
Prakrits appear in Sanskrit texts. For instance, classical Sanskrit
dramas, such as Kalidasa’s ‘Little clay cart’ include speeches by
different characters in various forms of Prakrit. For instance, whereas
the cook speaks in a ‘cook’s Prakrit’ and monkeys speak in a Prakrit
appropriate for monkeys, the king the leading characters and the narrator
speak in Sanskrit. This is similar to the modern linguistic situation in
India where within a single environment or location a variety of language
forms are spoken by different people. For instance in a monastery in Bodh
Gaya, the cooks and workers will speak in varieties of local dialect, but
the monks will speak in standard Hindi as well as their mother tongues,
and the leading figures will also be able to converse in English. In other
words the use of multiple languages according to social register is a
common feature in South Asia.

There are also three other elements which
need to be considered. First, there is the Dravidian element in the
language situation in India. This term refers to a completely different
language group nowadays spoken in the forms of Tamil, Malayalam, Telegu
and Kannada in the Southern states of India. There is also an isolated
pocket of the Dravidian languages in the Brahui language of modern
Pakistan. This language group is based on a quite distinct vocabulary and
grammar. Second, it should be noted, for completeness sake, that there are
also a variety of ‘tribal’ languages spoken in India which belong to
various other language groups again. These include the languages of the
tribal groups in Bihar, such as Santhali and Gond. Third there are also
languages from distinct language groups spoken in the Himalayan and
Burmese border regions of South Asia.

The situation at the time of the Buddha
was probably very similar with a wide variety of languages being spoken in
the area in which he lived. The dominant Prakrit language of his period in
the area where he was active was called Magadhi, as is the present Hindi
dialect of the area. This name is also preserved in the name given to the
Prakrit of many of the Jaina scriptures. These were compiled from oral
sources based on traditions active mainly in the Magadh area and the
language of these scriptures is called ‘Adha-Magadhi’, that is
‘Half-Magadhi’. It is a form of cleaned up Magadhi, half way between
everyday speech and a ‘pure’ language.

Language and meaning

The most important reason to consider any
of this is that we need to consider how the Buddha would have addressed
his audiences. He would have needed to speak in such a manner as would
have been comprehensible to his audience. Clearly is a situation of such
linguistic diversity he would have had to modulate his forms of speech
according to the audience he was addressing. Speaking to a king and to a
gang of street children, you need to speak in different ways.

Also we should consider that modern
mass-education and media have been rapidly erasing the differences between
dialects but that the situation in pre-modern cultures is one in which
language forms vary considerably over short distances. There is a Hindi
saying that after every three villages the language (that is the dialect)
changes. So in that the Buddha was born on the Nepali border then his own
language would not have been the same as that of Rajgir in Magadh or
Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh. There are elements in the texts of the Pali
canon which can be regarded as indicative of slight differences in
language perhaps reflective of these ancient dialect differences.

Surely when the Buddha was addressing King
Bimbasara he would have expressed himself in a different register than
when he was addressing an ascetic who was visiting from another part of
India, such as Bahiya who had come from Maharashtra to visit the Buddha. I
would speculate that a skilled orator would express even the same notion
to both audiences in different ways in order to get the teaching across as
well as possible. If then you had been listening to both speeches you
would have heard two versions of the same teaching. Were you then to be
asked ‘which was the genuine teaching of the two’ you would have had to
say that both were genuine, although they were different in exact wording
as they carried the same teaching.

The question of how to teach and the
languages in which to teach is indeed addressed in the Pali canon. It is
said that the Buddha was asked when teaching in different areas should the
teachings be in a single language or adapted to the local language. The
Buddha said that the teachings should be made in the language of the area.
So disciples of the Buddha would have been teaching in a variety of
languages according to the contexts in which they found themselves, so
that people could understand them.

The Buddha is also said to have favoured
natural language, Prakrit, over refined speech, Sanskrit, as the latter
would not have been comprehensible to the general public. So what then is
the relationship between Prakrit and Pali?

In a sense the term Pali, like Sanskrit,
does not refer to a language at all. Richard Gombrich pointed out that it
actually means ‘sacred scripture’ and is a descriptive term for the
Theravada scriptures and the language they are in. It is a standardised
and consistent language based on earlier dialects. It is not exactly what
the Buddha said, it is a standardised form of what the Buddha said. It is
close to the Prakrit Magadhi languages that the Buddha probably spoke in,
but it is not identical to them.

The Pali canon features long set phrases
which are repeated countless times in identical terms. Such as the
formulation of the Noble Truths and set descriptions like ‘he saluted the
Buddha and sat down at one side of him’. These set doctrinal phrases and
stock descriptive elements are, however, normally contextualised within
passages which are each in a sense unique.

It seems to therefore be appropriate to
point out that we have no way of knowing when the tradition of explaining
the Pali canon with further commentorial material began. The textual
traditions now extant always feature the main texts and subsidiary
commentaries. It is known than that this tradition goes back in Sri Lanka
to the time of the introduction of Buddhism, when it is said that
commentaries explaining the texts were introduced along with the texts
themselves. (I am using the term text here to refer to a spoken text, not
a written text). This pattern of text and commentary is common in South
Asian literature. It is also a feature of non-Buddhist Indian literature
and a Sutra (Skt) or Sutta (Pali) means a ‘string’ or
‘thread’ and is the condensed essence of a text onto which a commentary
should be stung.

The repetition of set phrases and material
to contextualise and explain them is a feature which is typical of texts
with commentaries. Part of the motivation for this is clearly that it is
no good giving a teaching in a language nobody understands, it has to be
accessible. Likewise even if the main teaching is linguistically
comprehensible it will probably need an explanation to contextualise and
make the meaning clear to the particular audience which is being
addressed. Thus the issue of what constitutes ‘the speech of the Buddha’ (Buddhavacana)
is further complicated here by the possibility that we may have multiple
versions of reported versions of what the Buddha said, all genuine, but
all slightly different.

There is also an issue which is raised by
a reference in the canon to two Brahmin brothers who had become monks and
remembered the teachings and asked for permission to chant them in the
manner of a Vedic chant. But the Buddha said that this was not
appropriate. Despite this the Buddhist texts are chanted, but the manner
and styles of their chanting do not conform to the Vedic patterns for the
chanting of texts.

If we entertain the notion that the Pali
texts are not the actual speech of the Buddha, but standardised versions
of what he said, what then would be the relationship of the Sanskrit
versions of the texts to the Pali versions? The Sanskrit versions are also
standardised versions and would stand in similar relationship to the
original utterances.

If we put aside the Theravada claim that
the Pali texts are literal word of the Buddha then we have to consider
this possibility. The existence of other Prakrit versions also seems to
point to the same truth. None of the extant versions are simply ‘the
literal words’ of the Buddha, all textual traditions are, in one way or
another, standardised versions of the words of the Buddha. The canon
itself contains references to how it is important to understand the
intended meaning of the text and not get caught up in the literal meaning.

In the present day the various Sanskrit
and Prakrit versions of the canon are not all perfectly preserved. There
are large sections of the canons of a number of Nikaya Buddhist
traditions extant in their original language forms and, fortunately, more
extensive translations of these texts into Chinese. Therefore it is
possible to compare the Sanskrit, Prakit and Pali versions of some texts.

An instance of this is the Dhammapada.
This is available in Pali, Sanskrit, two Prakrits, Chinese and Tibetan
translations. The various traditions do not have exactly the same text.
The number of verses vary, the order of the verses vary and the texts of
the verses vary and to some extent even the meaning of individual verses
vary.

The common endeavour behind all of this
was clearly a constant effort by different people in diverse locations to
keep the Buddha’s teachings comprehensible. For some people it seemed that
Pali was the best, for some Prakrits, for some a widely know standard
language, Sanskrit, seemed the most appropriate. For some it was necessary
to translate the texts into totally new languages, such as Chinese. In the
article by (I have forgotten his name) on the translation of the Lotus
Sutra into Chinese there is a fine description of this translation
process. It needed one or more Indian Pandits and one or more central
Asian and Chinese Pandits who would sit together. The India Pandit reads
out the text to the Chinese Pandit who writes it down and then it is
compared for meaning by the various people involved. In the particular
case that was being studied in this article it is argued that although the
text is described as being in Sanskrit, the Indian Pandit was apparently
reading it out in Prakrit based on the evidence of the kinds of mistakes
that were being made in translation. So this suggests that not only do we
need to consider the languages of the written forms of the texts but of
the spoken forms of exposition which were employed. We must remember then
that the text consists of the text, the expounder and the listener.

Linguistic change and the Growth of
Buddhism

One other point about the linguistic
changes in the growth of the canon. It seems to reflect to some extent the
geographical spread of Buddhism. By the second century CE Buddhism had
spread throughout South Asia and into Central Asia and China. Therefore
the issue of how to give the teachings must have been of prime concern in
the Buddhist world. The common consensus was clearly that the texts needed
to be translated into languages appropriate for the peoples of the areas
in which Buddhism was active. But at the same time there is of course the
overarching need to maintain the meaning of the teachings while the form
of expression varies. Within the North Indian linguistic area is was
possible to maintain key terms in forms which were commonly employed,
sukha, dukkha, dharma, karma, nirvana, samsara, etc.

But, once the texts started being
translated into Chinese a new set of problems was apparent. Just as terms
such as dharma, nirvana, samsara present problems for translation
into English, so to is there a problem when translating such terms into
Chinese. There was, for instance, no common view of reincarnation
samsara as a given truth in Chinese.

Interestingly enough the first school of
Chinese translation, the old school, translated by finding the most
similar Chinese terms available for Indic terms, normally finding terms
from Taoism that were equivalent. Thus the Buddha became a teacher of the
Tao rather than the dharma. This translation approach was standard
from the beginnings in the 1st/2nd century CE up to around the 5th
century. At this point the translators revised their views and
retranslated the texts again using Chinese equivalent versions of the
Indic terms rather than Taoist equivalents.

Buddhist literature

So was the canon of the Nikaya Buddhist
traditions exactly the same for all the traditions? I have indicated above
that in the case of the Dhammapada there were variations between
the different traditions. Variations in the number of verses and verses
that are common to all traditions and unique to individual traditions. You
cannot simply say that one version is the original version, yet it is
desirable to consider how the versions related to each other. It is likely
that non of the extant versions are the original version as oral
traditions are often more fluid than textual traditions. So rather than
saying that any one textual version it might be better to propose that all
the versions are but windows onto an earlier oral tradition. There are in
the case of other texts instances where the Pali versions of texts seem
more developed than other versions. For instance the Pali
Mahaparinibbana sutta seems more complex than the version translated
into Chinese from the Sanskrit Sarvastivada tradition. The latter having a
more simple description of the funeral rites and the former a more
elaborate version.

Nikaya literature: vinaya, sutta,
and abhidharma pitakas

There are basically three parts of the
Nikaya Buddhist canon. The Sutta pitaka, the Vinaya pitaka
and the Abhidhamma pitaka. The Sutta pitaka is fairly
consistent in some parts over the various versions, in particular the
Digha and Majjima, Anguttara and Samyakta Nikayas are
fairly consistent in their contents, if not in the exact forms of the
texts.

However the next Nikaya,
Khuddaka Nikaya which in the Pali version contains 14 texts has a much
greater variation in its contents. It includes the Khuddaka Pattha,
a sort of early version of a collection of the chants for daily recitation
and the Dhammapada, which I have already noted has considerable
variations between the various versions. The next text is the Udana,
which at least in the Sarva stiva da version is similar to the name given
to the Dhammapada which is called the Udanavarga. There is
also the Itivuttika further sayings of the Buddha and the jatakas.
The number of the jatakas also varies from tradition to tradition.
There are also instances of completely different works being included in
this part of the canon by different traditions.

The Sarvastivada tradition included a text
called the Mahavastu in the canon, a kind of life of the Buddha,
but the Theravada tradition does not include this text. While the
Theravada tradition included the Vimanavattu and the
Pettavatu in its canon, tales on the good and bad results of giving or
not giving to the samgha. These last two texts are regarded as very
late by scholars. So to are the following texts called the Buddhavamsa,
an account of the previous 24 Buddhas and the Cariya-pitaka which
is an account of how the Buddha manifested the ten perfections in his
previous lives as a Bodhisattva. The very fact that the title of the last
includes the term pitaka in its title, which is a term that means
basket or winnowing fan suggest that it must have come from a time when
the canon could be put into baskets, clearly only possible once it had
been written down.

The Pali canon was first written down in
the first century BCE in Sri Lanka according to Sri Lankan sources. The
traditional explanation of this is that it was due to fear of parts of the
canon getting lost that led to it being written down. It is said that
during a famine there was only a only a single monk left alive who knew
one section of it and this was the cause of it being set down in writing.
You may think it was odd that it was not previously written down, but
there seems to have been a reluctance to write things down in ancient
India.

To return to the contents of the canon the
next part is the Vinaya pitaka which includes details on how the
monks and nuns should live and stories to explain the rules of the
monastic code. Even in the fifth century CE when Chinese pilgrims were
visiting India and trying to get copies of the Vinaya they found it
quite difficult as in many places it existed only in the form of oral
tradition. The reluctance to commit to writing parts of the canon seems to
have been a long standing aspect of the tradition in India. People simply
preferred to remember the whole thing. It was indeed one specialisation
that monks could have was to memorise entire parts of the canon, and
memorisation of the Vinaya pitaka was apparently a common
phenomena.

The last part of the canon is the
Abhidhamma pitaka, a philosophical study of the Buddha’s teachings.
This contains seven works in the Theravada version. In the Sarva stiva da
version the number and nature of the works was somewhat different. Certain
parts show evidences of having been based on similar earlier traditions,
others are clearly distinctive contributions of the various schools. It is
not clear if all schools had their own Abhidhamma pitaka traditions
or they were shared in common by various traditions. The main
Abhidhamma pitaka traditions seem to have been those of the Theravada
and the Sarva stiva da traditions.

The different Abhidhamma pitaka
traditions are acknowledged to be later parts of the canon which were not
in existence at the time of the first council and they post date the
Sutta and Vinaya pitakas. There are considerable variations
between the different philosophical traditions. The Theravada tradition
held that there were only four realities rupa, citta, cetasaka and
Nibbana, whereas the Sarva stiva da tradition held that
there were five realities and included space a ka sa as a fifth
reality. Also whilst the Theravada tradition held that only the present
moment ‘existed’ when things were perceived, the Sarva stiva da
tradition held that things ‘existed’ in the past, present and future. This
last view accounts for the name of the tradition which means ‘all exists’.
Due to this it is natural that the philosophical texts vary in their
contents. Despite sharing a common interest in philosophical analysis.
Indeed the differences between the traditions form the basis for a
Theravada tradition text, the Katthavattu or ‘Points of
controversy’ which outlines the differences between the traditions as seen
from a Theravada viewpoint.

A point of note in this is that in the
Katthavattu the philosophical position on the possibility of
transferring merit to deceased relatives of the Theravada tradition is put
as that it is impossible in distinction from that of the other schools
which say that it is possible. But, this viewpoint also conflicts with the
views expressed in the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Theravada
canon itself, in which the transfer of merit is clearly regarded as
possible. A further twist to this issue is that in the later text called
Milanda Panha a compromise is suggested that merit can be
transferred to some classes of preta, and this is the current view
of most Theravada tradition followers.

Nikaya and Mahayana literature

There is a further question which is worth
addressing here is. ‘What parts of the Nikaya Buddhist canon are
also accepted by Mahayana Buddhist traditions?’ Interestingly enough
though the question becomes not really what are accepted texts, so much as
what are texts that interest different traditions. The Sutta texts
for instance are accepted as genuine by the Mahayana tradition, but they
are of little interest to the Mahayana it seems. However, almost all the
traditions agree on the importance of the Dhammapada as the essence
of the Buddha’s teachings.

The Vinaya pitaka is also a
commonly held part of the early canon. Although that majority of East
Asian and Himalayan traditions follow the Sarva stiva da Vinaya
rather than the Theravada Vinaya, however there are in theory no
major differences. This is of course quite separate from the question of
how the Vinaya is interpreted which evidently varies widely between
the Northern and Southern traditions.

The Abhidhamma contains almost no
texts which are common between Nikaya Buddhists, let alone between
the Nikaya Buddhists and the Mahayana Buddhists. However, there is
a similar fascination with philosophy in all the traditions.

It is also vital to realise that there is
much in Theravada tradition which is unique to it and not held in common
with other Nikaya Buddhist traditions. The great synthesis of
teachings in the Visuddhimagga, ‘The Path of Purification’ by
Buddhaghosa which was composed in the 5th century CE is distinctly
Theravada in its viewpoint. It was based on a translation into Pali
of the existing Singhalese commentaries on the canon and records
traditions which may well go back in origin to India but had undergone
centuries of evolution in Sri Lanka. Buddhaghosa himself was from North
India, from near Bodh Gaya and went to Sri Lanka to translate their
vernacular commentaries into Pali.

The famous Sri Lankan chronicles, such as
the Mahavamsa are also distinctly Sri Lankan Theravada creations
that link the history of Buddhism to that of the ruling dynasties of Sri
Lanka.

There was also a continuous tradition of
creating new Pali texts in South East Asia, in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia
and Laos. It is interesting to note that in this case the argument for
Pali as the sacred language has completely altered. The early argument for
Pali it seems was, as suggested above, that it was comprehensible to the
people as it was close to everyday speech. Evidently in Sri Lanka and
South East Asia this was not the case. Rather it was seen as being the
authentic language of the Buddha. In a sense then it has become a kind of
purified language whose function is akin to that of Sanskrit in India, a
kind of sacred lingua franca comprehensible over a wide area and
felt to be the essence of refinement and imbued with great power and
sophistication.

The Earliest Buddhist Manuscripts

Finally, as an epilogue let us consider
the case of the earliest Buddhist manuscripts yet discovered. A few years
ago the British Library in London was approached to find out if it was
interested in acquiring what appeared to be some old manuscripts which had
emerged from war torn Afghanistan. These were a collection of rolled up
birch bark manuscripts. These are very difficult materials to deal with as
they normally crumble into dust as you touch them. In this case they were
stored in urns and they were purchased in the urns. The library spent a
year and a half gradually humidifying and unrolling the manuscripts a
millimetre at a time and ended up with fragile sheets of birch bark
sandwiched between perspex sheets. It should be born in mind that birch
bark is a bit like vellum, as long as its kept in normal conditions it is
pliable and an excellent writing surface, it only become so crumbly if
left to dry out in an arid environment for two thousand years. These were
then photographed and digitised. They are a very exciting discovery as it
has become apparent that they date from around the first century CE. They
are written in a dialect of Prakrit in a script called Kharoshti,
and the number of scholars it is said who can read this script are said to
be merely a handful. The Kharoshti script was popular in the North
Western part of India and dropped out of use by the time of the Islamic
invasions of India. The group of scholars who are working on these
manuscripts are still working on deciphering them.

The initial reports indicate that they are
all fragments of works. This turns out to be because they are fragments of
old manuscripts which had been re-copied and the old manuscripts were
interred in an urn and buried as if they the body of the Buddha. This in
itself is fascinating as it shows that the Buddhists buried their old
manuscripts, Hindu’s also treat their manuscripts like their dead and
prefer to ideally place them into rivers as they do the ashes of bodies.

The contents of the manuscripts include
sections from Dhammapada, the rhinoceros verses, and verses in
praise of the lake now known as Manasarover by Mount Kailash, known in
Buddhist literature as lake Anavatapta. There also indications that they
productions of the Dhammaguptika tradition. They contain no parts of the
Vinaya or Abhidhamma pitakas and appear to be all drawn from
the Sutta pitaka. However, we are still waiting for further
detailed reports on their contents.

Conclusion

In conclusion then it is clear that the
breadth and depth of Buddhist literature is hard to comprehend. Even were
you to become a master of the Theravada Tipitaka you would still
not have read the greater part of the literature of the other Nikaya
Buddhist traditions. Also to be able to do a good comparative study of
this literature in real depth you would need to know not just Pali,
Prakrit and Sanskrit, but also to access the translations of the parts of
the Nikaya Buddhist canons lost in Indic languages you need to
learn Chinese to read these portions in translation. This is as they say
in Australia ‘a big ask’, however, beginning to map out the dimensions of
this issue is the first step on the road to the study of Nikaya
Buddhist literature.

The Pali Language

Source:
http://www.buddhamind.info

A question often asked is: “Did the
Buddha speak Pali?” If so, how much of the original language has been
retained? If not, how much has translation affected the accurate
transmission of the teachings? There seems to be no one answer to these
questions but I offer the following as the results of my investigation.

The paramount power in India for two
centuries, spanning both before and after the Buddha, was the Kingdom of
Kosala, of which the Buddha’s birth kingdom, Magadha, was a fiefdom.
Magadhi seems to be a dialect of Kosalan, and there is some evidence that
this was the language that the Buddha spoke. The Pali of the Canon seems
to be based on the standard Kosalan as spoken in the 6th and 7th centuries
BC. The script used on the rock edicts of Asoka is a younger form of this
standard. On one of the Asoka pillars (about 300 BC) there is a list of
named Suttas which can be linguistically placed within the Singhalese
Canon.

Sanskrit was also widely spoken and
warrants discussion. It seems to have been the language of the Brahmin’s,
the ’spiritual’ class. It is etymologically older than Pali but, as
regards texts and inscriptions, the native tongue (Kosalan) was the more
common or popular medium. In the Text we see the Buddha encouraging his
disciples to teach in the popular language of any area. However after the
Buddha’s death, what were considered more ‘learned’ forms were gradually
made use of, despite the fact that these gave a less faithful picture of
the living speech. Slowly the efforts to represent the real facts of the
spoken language gave way to another effort, the expression of learned
phraseology, until roughly 300 AD, classical Sanskrit became used
exclusively in relation to Buddhism. This trend is reflected in the
scripture of later Buddhist traditions.

The use of Pali is practically confined to
Buddhist subjects, and then only in the Theravada school. It’s exact
origin is the subject of much learned debate and from the point of view of
the non-specialist, we can think of it as a kind of simplified, common
man’s Sanskrit. The source of the Pali Text we have lies in the North of
India. It is definitely not Singhalese in origin as it contains no mention
of any place in Sri Lanka, or even South India. The similes abounding in
the Singhalese literature are those of a sub-tropical climate and of a
great river valley rather than those of a tropical island.

Being an essentially oral language,
lacking a strong literary base of its own, it adopted the written script
of each country it settled in. It is clear that by the time the Text
arrived in Sri Lanka, with Asoka’s son Mahinda, about 240 BC, it was
considered closed.

Conclusion:

Any historical study is much like a jigsaw
puzzle. Piecing together information from a scrap of parchment here, a
clay tablet there; comparing various bits of antiquity, the opinions and
insights of others; analysing and evaluating - and then - coming to a
conclusion. The more Buddhist history books I studied, to try and
determine precise information, the more opinions I ended up collecting.
History, it seems, can be very much a matter of opinion.

Very few undisputed facts exist by which
to prove the authenticity of the Pali Canon. Even the dates of the Buddha
are questionable. The earliest reliable dates in Indian history that we
have are those for Emperor Asoka’s rule; 274 - 236 BC. We can also be
relatively certain that the Text remained unchanged from the time it was
written down, about 80 BC.

As regards the reliability of the Text I
felt two items to be of greatest importance.

* Firstly: The reason that anything
survives the rigours of more than 2000 years of history is that it is
considered to be of great value. Presumably the reason for this evaluation
was that the teaching was seen to work, i.e. to lead to the transcendence
of suffering. Such a known treasure would have been well guarded and part
of this protection would have been a tremendous concern for retaining the
‘jewel’ in its entirety, i.e. accurately.

* Secondly: After several centuries of
travelling to many different lands and being translated into different
languages, the disparity between the various renderings of the main Text
existing today in Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan is typically
greatest in matters of least importance. Only very rarely are differences
founded on doctrinal matters. It can be seen that these works are clearly
not independent compositions, being very similar in their substantive
content. This “authenticity by comparison” is an important item in support
of scriptural accuracy. More specifically, the Vinaya is almost without
exception, identical in every Buddhist tradition.

On a more general note:

I feel that the majority of us who have
come to give the Text some consideration, originally set out in search of
a guide by which to find a way to resolve the root-problem of our personal
existence. The process of production warrants investigation but surely the
true test of any guide book is its ability to lead one to the desired
destination. The whole energy behind the Buddha’s teaching was the ending
of suffering. If what you glean from the Text eases or ends your suffering
then the teaching has been accurately transmitted. What is of greatest
importance is to take the teachings that seem relevant, that feel
applicable to your life, and to make them a personal reality, to turn the
theory into practice.

-ooOoo-

Source: Internet

[Back
to English Index]
last updated: 07-07-2005

29 Classical Galician
29 Clásico galego

2570 Sáb 24 de marzo de 2018 LECCIÓN

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/

Buda Vacana
- As palabras do Buda -
O budismo clásico (ensinanzas do espertado con conciencia) pertence ao mundo e todos teñen dereitos exclusivos:

é a enerxía máis positiva do sitio informativo e orientado á
investigación, que propaga as ensinanzas do Despertar con consciencia do
Buda e do Movemento de Techno-Politico-Socio Transformación e
Emancipación Económica seguido por millóns de persoas en todo o mundo.

Realizando
a tradución exacta como unha lección desta universidade na súa lingua
materna a esta tradución de Google https://translate.google.com ea súa
propagación dá dereito a converterse nun Enterreiro de Rede (Sottapanna)
e conseguir a Felicidade Eterna como Obxectivo Final. Analytic Insight-Net - FREE Online Analytical Insight-Net Tipiṭaka
Research & Practice Universidade e relacionadas NOTICIAS a través de
http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org en 105 LINGUAS CLÁSICAS

Buda Vacana
- As palabras do Buda -
Aprende Pali en liña de xeito gratuíto e sinxelo.

Este
sitio web está dedicado a aqueles que desexan comprender mellor as
palabras do Buda aprendendo os conceptos básicos da lingua Pali, pero
que non teñen moito tempo dispoñible para iso. A
idea é que se o seu propósito é simplemente habilitarse para ler os
textos de Pali e ter unha sensación xusta de comprendelos, aínda que esa
comprensión non abarque todos os detalles mínimos das regras
gramaticais, realmente non precisan gastar moito o tempo loitando cunha aprendizaxe desalentadora da tediosa teoría gramatical que inclúe moitas declinacións e conxugacións.

Nese
caso, basta limitarse a simplemente aprender o significado das palabras
Pali máis importantes, porque a repetida experiencia da lectura
proporciona unha comprensión empírica e intuitiva das estruturas de
oracións máis comúns. Así, poden facerse autodidactas, elixindo o tempo, a duración, a frecuencia, os contidos e a profundidade do seu propio estudo.

A
súa comprensión da Buda Vacana farase moito máis precisa xa que
aprenden e memorizan sen esforzo as palabras e as fórmulas importantes
que son fundamentais no ensino de Buda, por medio da lectura regular. A súa aprendizaxe ea inspiración a partir diso vanse a medrar a medida
que mellorará a súa receptividade ás mensaxes do profesor.

Exención de responsabilidade: Este sitio web é creado por un autodidacto e está feito para autodidactos. O
webmaster non seguiu ningún curso oficial de Pali e non hai ningún
reclamo de que toda a información aquí presentada estea totalmente libre
de erros. Os que desexan unha precisión académica poden considerar unirse a un curso formal de Pali. No caso de que os lectores noten algún erro, o webmaster agradece se o
informan a través da caixa de correo mencionada en “Contacto”.

Sutta Piṭaka -Digha Nikāya

DN 9 -
Poṭṭhapāda Sutta
{extracto}
- As cuestións de Poṭṭhapāda -

Poṭṭhapāda fai preguntas sobre a natureza de Saññā.
Nota: textos simples

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/suttapitaka.html
Sutta Piṭaka
- A cesta de discursos -
[sutta: discurso]

O Sutta Piṭaka contén a esencia do ensino de Buda sobre o Dhamma. Contén máis de dez mil suttas. Está dividido en cinco coleccións chamadas Nikāyas.

Dīgha Nikāya
    [dīgha: long] O Dīgha Nikāya reúne 34 dos discursos máis longos que deu o Buda. Hai varias indicacións de que moitas delas son adicións tardías ao corpus orixinal e de autenticidade cuestionable.
Majjhima Nikāya
    [majjhima: medio] O Majjhima Nikāya reúne 152 discursos do Buda de lonxitude intermedia, tratando diversos asuntos.
Saṃyutta Nikāya
    [samyutta: grupo] O Saṃyutta Nikāya reúne as suttas segundo o seu tema en 56 subgrupos chamados saṃyuttas. Contén máis de tres mil discursos de lonxitude variable, pero xeralmente relativamente curto.
Aṅguttara Nikāya
    [aṅg: factor | uttara:
additionnal] O Aṅguttara Nikāya está subdividido en once subgrupos
chamados nipātas, cada un dos cales agrupa discursos compostos por
enumeracións dun factor adicional versus as do precedente nipāta. Contén miles de suttas que xeralmente son curtos.
Khuddaka Nikāya
    [khuddha:
curto, pequeno] Os textos curtos de Khuddhaka Nikāya e considerado
composto por dúas estratos: Dhammapada, Udāna, Itivuttaka, Sutta Nipāta,
Theragāthā-Therīgāthā e Jātaka forman os estratos antigos, mentres que
outros libros son complementos tardíos ea súa autenticidade é máis cuestionable.

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/formulae.html

Árbore

Fórmulas de Pali

A
visión sobre a que se basea este traballo é que as pasaxes das suttas
que son as máis repetidas polo Buda en todos os catro Nikāyas pódense
tomar como indicando o que el consideraba máis digno de interese no seu
ensino , e ao mesmo tempo que o que representa con máis precisión as palabras reais. Oito deles expóñense no Gaṇaka-Moggallāna Sutta (MN 107) e describen como Sekha Paṭipadā ou P

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/formulae.html

Fórmulas de Pali

A
visión sobre a que se basea este traballo é que as pasaxes das suttas
que son as máis repetidas polo Buda en todos os catro Nikāyas pódense
tomar como indicando o que el consideraba máis digno de interese no seu
ensino , e ao mesmo tempo que o que representa con máis precisión as palabras reais. Oito deles expóñense no Gaṇaka-Moggallāna Sutta (MN 107) e descríbense
como Sekha Paṭipadā ou Path para un baixo o adestramento, que
prácticamente lidera o neófito ata o cuarto jhāna.

Sekha Paṭipadā - O camiño para un de adestramento

Doce fórmulas que definen paso a paso as principais prácticas prescritas polo Buda. É fundamental para quen quere avanzar con éxito, xa que contén as
instrucións que permitirá que o meditador configure as condicións
indispensables para unha práctica eficiente.

Ānāpānassati - Conciencia da respiración
    A práctica do ānāpānassati é moi recomendable polo Buda para todo tipo
de propósitos saudables e aquí podes entender con precisión as
instrucións que dá.
Anussati - As Recolecciones
    Aquí temos a descrición estándar do Buda (≈ 140 oc.), O Dhamma (≈90 occ.) Ea Sangha (≈45 oc.).
Appamāṇā Cetovimutti - As liberacións sen límites da mente
    O Buda a miúdo eloa a práctica dos catro appamāṇā cetovimutti, que son
coñecidos por traer protección contra os perigos e por ser un camiño
que conduce a Brahmaloka.
Arahatta - Arahantship
    Esta é a fórmula de inventario pola que se descrebe a realización da arandería nas suttas.
Ariya Sīlakkhandha - O agregado nobre da virtude
    Varias regras a seguir por bhikkhus.
Arūpajjhānā - The Formless Jhānas
    Aquí están as fórmulas de accións que describen as absorcións de
samādhi máis aló do cuarto jhāna, que son referidas na literatura tardía
de Pali como arūpajjhānas.
Āsavānaṃ Khayañāṇa - Coñecemento da destrución dos āsavas
    Coñecemento da destrución dos āsavas: arahantship.
Bhojane Mattaññutā - Moderación nos alimentos
    Moderación nos alimentos: coñecer a cantidade adecuada para comer.
Cattāro Jhānā - Os catro jhānas
    As catro jhānas: ter un agradable cumprimento.
Indriyesu Guttadvāratā - Vixilancia á entrada das facultades sensoriais
    Garda na entrada das facultades de sentido: restricción sen sentido.
Jāgariyaṃ Anuyoga - Dedicación á vixilia
    Dedicación á vixilia: día e noite.
Kammassakomhi: son o meu propio kamma
    Esta fórmula explica un dos fundamentos do ensino do Buda: unha versión subjetiva da lei da causa e do efecto.
Nīvaraṇānaṃ Pahāna - eliminación de obstáculos
    Eliminación dos obstáculos: superación da obstrución dos estados mentais.
Pumajjā - A saída
    A saída: como se decide renunciar ao mundo.
Pubbenivāsānussatiñāṇa - Coñecemento do recordo dos antigos lugares de vida
    Coñecemento do recordo dos antigos lugares de vida: recordando as vidas pasadas.
Satipaṭṭhāna - Presenza de conciencia
    Estas son as fórmulas coas que o Buda define en breve cal son as catro satipaṭṭhānas (≈33 oc.).
Satisampajañña - Comprensión e comprensión
    Mindfulness e comprensión completa: unha práctica ininterrompida.
Satta saddhammā - Sete boas calidades
    Sete calidades fundamentais que deben ser dominadas polo alumno para ter éxito. Catro destas calidades aparecen tamén entre as cinco indriyas espirituais e as cinco balas.
Sattānaṃ Cutūpapātañāṇa - Coñecemento do renacemento dos seres doados
    Coñecemento do renacemento dos seres doados.
Sīlasampatti - Realización en virtude
    Realización en virtude: unha observación atenta das regras de Pātimokkha.
Vivitta Senāsanena Bhajana - Recorrendo a vivendas illadas
    A elección dun lugar axeitado e a adopción da boa postura física e mental é outra condición sine qua non de práctica exitosa.
Folla Bodhi

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/patimokkha.html

Pātimokkha
- As pautas de Bhikkhu -

Estas son as 227 pautas que cada bhikkhu debe aprender de memoria na linguaxe Pali para poder recitarlas. Aquí ofrecerás (esperemos) unha análise semántico de cada guía.

Pārājika 1
Se
algún bhikkhu participase no adestramento e no sustento dos bhikkhus,
sen renunciar á formación, sen declarar a súa debilidade, se involucrar
na relación sexual, ata con un animal feminino, é vencido e xa non está
afiliado.

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/patimokkha/par1.html

">Pārājika 1

yo pana bhikkhu bhikkhūnaṃ sikkhā · s · ājīva · samāpanno sikkhaṃ a ·
paccakkhāya du · b · balyaṃ an · āvi · katvā methunaṃ dhammaṃ
paṭiseveyya antamaso tiracchāna · gatāya · pi, pārājiko hoti a saṃvāso.

Se algún bhikkhu participase no adestramento e no sustento dos
bhikkhus, sen renunciar á formación, sen declarar a súa debilidade, se
involucrar na relación sexual, ata con un animal feminino, é vencido e
xa non está afiliado.

Eu pana bhikkhu Debería algún bhikkhu
bhikkhūnaṃ sikkhā · s · ājīva · samāpanno participando na formación e no sustento dos bhikkhus,
sikkhaṃ a · paccakkhāya sen renunciar á formación,
du · b · balyaṃ an · āvi · katvā sen declarar a súa debilidade
Methunaṃ dhammaṃ paṭiseveyya participa das relacións sexuais,
antamaso tiracchâna · gatāya · pi, mesmo cun animal feminino,
pārājiko hoti a · saṃvāso. el é derrotado e xa non está afiliado.

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Dīgha Nikāya

Majjhima Nikāya

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Aṅguttara Nikāya

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Árbore
Dīgha Nikāya
- Os longos discursos -
[dīgha: longo]

O Dīgha Nikāya reúne 34 dos discursos máis longos supuestamente entregados polo Buda.

Poṭṭhapāda Sutta (DN 9) {extracto} - tradución mellorada
    Poṭṭhapāda fai preguntas sobre a natureza de Saññā.
Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (DN 16) (extractos) - palabra por palabra
    Este sutta recolle diversas instrucións que o Buda deu por mor dos
seus seguidores despois do seu falecemento, o que fai que sexa un
conxunto de instrucións moi importante para nós hoxe en día.
Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (DN 22) - palabra por palabra
    Este sutta é ampliamente considerado como unha referencia fundamental para a práctica da meditación.

—— oooOooo ——
http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/majjhima.html
">Majjhima Nikāya
- Os discursos de lonxitude media -
[majjhima: medio]

O Majjhima Nikāya reúne 152 discursos do Buda de lonxitude intermedia, tratando de diversas materias.

Sabbāsava Sutta (MN 2) - tradución mellorada
    Moi interesante sutta, onde se desvían as distintas formas nas que os āsavas, fermentadores defilementos da mente.
Bhayabherava Sutta (MN 4) - tradución mellorada
    ¿Que tería que vivir na soidade no deserto, completamente libre de medo? O Buda explica.
Vattha Sutta (MN 7) {extracto} - tradución mellorada
    Atopamos aquí unha lista bastante estándar de dezaseis defilements
(upakkilesa) da mente, e unha explicación dun mecanismo polo que se
obteñen estas “confidencias confirmadas” no Buda, o Dhamma e a Sangha
que son factores de entrada.
Mahādukkhakkhandha Sutta (MN 13) - tradución mellorada
    Sobre
o assāda (ilusionismo), ādīnava (desvantaxe) e nissaraṇa (emancipación)
de kāma (sensualidade), rūpa (forma) e vedanā (sentimento). Moita cousa moi útil para reflexionar.
Cūḷahatthipadopama Sutta (MN 27) - tradución mellorada
    O Buda explica como o feito de que é realmente un ser iluminado debe
ser tomado na fe ou como unha conxectura ata que se alcance un
determinado estadio e que calquera reclamación de tal coñecemento sen
esa realización sexa inútil.
Mahāvedalla Sutta (MN 43) (extracto) - palabra por palabra
    Sāriputta responde a varias preguntas interesantes feitas por Āyasmā
Mahākoṭṭhika e, neste fragmento, explica que Vedanā, Saññā e Viññāṇa non
están claramente delimitadas pero están profundamente entrelazadas.
Cūỏavedalla Sutta (MN 44) {extracto} - tradución mellorada
    O bhikkhuni Dhammadinnā responde unha serie de preguntas interesantes formuladas por Visākha. Entre outras cousas, ela dá a definición de 20 veces de sakkāyadiṭṭhi.
Sekha Sutta (MN 53) - tradución mellorada
    O Buda pide a Ānanda que expón a Sekha Paṭipadā, da cal dá unha
versión sorprendente, da cal Satisampajañña e Nīvaraṇānaṃ Pahāna son
curiosamente substituídos por unha serie de sete “boas calidades”, e que
se ilustra cun símil contante.
Potaliya Sutta (MN 54) - tradución mellorada
    Unha serie de sete similes estándar para explicar os inconvenientes e os perigos de dar sensualidade.
Bahuvedanīya Sutta (MN 59) (extracto) - palabra por palabra
    Neste curto fragmento, o Buda define os cinco kāmaguṇās e fai unha comparación importante con outro tipo de pracer.
Kīṭāgiri Sutta (MN 70) {extracto} - tradución mellorada
    Este sutta contén unha definición de dhammānusārī e saddhānusārī.

Bāhitikā Sutta (MN 88) {extracto} - tradución mellorada
    O Rei Pasenadi de Kosala está ansioso por entender o que se recomenda
ou non por ascetas e brahmanos sabios, e pide unha serie de preguntas a
Ānanda que nos permiten comprender mellor o significado das palabras
kusala (saudable) e akusala (indeciso).
Ānāpānassati Sutta (MN 118) - palabra por palabra
    O famoso sutta sobre a práctica do ānāpānassati, e como conduce á
práctica das catro satipaṭṭhānas e subsecuentemente ao cumprimento dos
sete bojjhaṅgas.
Saḷāyatanavibhaṅga Sutta (MN 137) (extracto) - tradución mellorada
    Neste profundo e moi interesante sutta, o Buda define entre outras
cousas cales son as investigacións de sentimentos mentais agradables,
desagradables e neutrales, e tamén define a expresión que se atopa na
descrición estándar do Buda: “anuttaro purisadammasārathī”.
Indriyabhāvanā Sutta (MN 152) - palabra por palabra
    Este sutta ofrece tres enfoques para a práctica da restrición de
sentido, que conteñen instrucións adicionais que complementan as
fórmulas Indriyesu Guttadvāratā.

—— oooOooo ——
http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/samyutta.html

Árbore
">Saṃyutta Nikāya
- Os discursos clasificados -
[saṃyutta: grupo]

Os discursos do Saṃyutta Nikāya divídense segundo o seu tema en 56 saṃyuttas, que están agrupados en cinco vaggas.

Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 12.2) - palabra por palabra
    Unha explicación detallada da paṭicca samuppāda, cunha definición de cada un dos doce enlaces.
Cetanā Sutta (SN 12.38) - tradución mellorada
    Aquí o Buda explica como cetaná, xunto co reflexivo e anusaya, actúan como base para viññāṇa.
Upādāna Sutta (SN 12.52) - tradución mellorada
    Esta é unha lección moi esclarecedora que revela mediante a cal o
mecanismo psicolóxico adxudícase e explica como pode ser facilmente
substituído por consideracións saudables para desfacerse del.
Puttamaṃsūpama Sutta (SN 12.63) - tradución mellorada
    O Buda ofrece aquí catro similes impresionantes e inspiradores para explicar como deben ser considerados os catro āhāras.
Sanidāna Sutta (SN 14.12) - tradución mellorada
    Unha marabillosa explicación de como as percepcións convértense en accións, máis ilustradas polo símil da antorcha ardente. ¡Mantéñase diligentemente consciente de disipar pensamentos inofensivos!
Āṇi Sutta (SN 20.7) - palabra por palabra
    Unha
cousa moi importante nos recorda o Buda: para o noso propio beneficio,
así como para o beneficio das xeracións aínda por vencer, debemos darlle
a maior importancia ás súas propias palabras reais, e non tanto a quen
máis finge hoxe en día ou finxiu no pasado para ser un profesor propio (Dhamma).
Samādhi Sutta (SN 22.5) - palabra por palabra
    O Buda exhorta aos seus seguidores a que desenvolvan a concentración
para que poidan practicar coñecementos sobre o xurdimento e falecemento
dos cinco agregados, despois de que defina o que significa ao xurdir e
morrer dos agregados, en termos de orixe dependente.
Paṭisallāṇa Sutta (SN 22.6) - sen tradución
    O Buda exhorta aos seus seguidores a practicar a reclusión para que
poidan practicar coñecementos sobre o xurdimento e falecemento dos cinco
agregados, despois de que defina o que significa ao xurdir e morrer dos
agregados, en termos de orixe dependente.
Upādāparitassanā Sutta (SN 22,8) - palabra por palabra
    A aparición e cesamento do sufrimento ocorre nos cinco agregados.
Nandikkhaya Sutta (SN 22,51) - palabra por palabra
    Como operar a destrución de pracer.
Anattalakkhana Sutta (SN 22.59) - palabra por palabra
    Neste famoso sutta, o Buda expón por primeira vez o seu ensino sobre anatta.
Khajjanīya Sutta (SN 22.79) {extracto} - palabra por palabra
    Este sutta proporciona unha definición sucinta dos cinco khandhas.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 29.1) - tradución mellorada
    Os distintos tipos de nāgas.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 30.1) - tradución mellorada
    Os diferentes tipos de supaṇṇas (aka garudas).
Suddhika Sutta (SN 31.1) - tradución mellorada
    Os diferentes tipos de gandhabba devas.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 32.1) - tradución mellorada
    Os diferentes tipos de devas na nube.
Samāpattimūlakaṭhiti Sutta (SN 34.11) - tradución mellorada
    Alcanzar a concentración e manter a concentración.
Pubbesambodha Sutta (SN 35.13) - palabra por palabra
    O Buda define o seu significado por fascinación, desvantaxe e
emancipación no caso das esferas de sentido interno, e entón declara que
o seu espertar non era nin máis nin menos que entender.
Abhinanda Sutta (SN 35.20) - palabra por palabra
    Non hai fuga para quen deleite os obxectos sensuais.
Migajāla Sutta (SN 35.46) - tradución mellorada
    Por que a verdadeira soidade é tan difícil de atopar? O Buda explica por que, sen importar onde se vaia, os teus compañeiros máis irritantes sempre agreden.
Avijjāpahāna Sutta (SN 35.53) - palabra por palabra
    Un discurso moi sinxelo, aínda veo

Sabbupādānapariññā Sutta (SN 35.60) - palabra por palabra
    O Buda, ao expresar a comprensión completa de todo o apego, dá unha
explicación profunda e aínda moi clara: o contacto xorde a partir de
tres fenómenos.
Migajāla Sutta Sutta (SN 35.64) (extracto) - palabra por palabra
    Algúns
neófitos (e moitas veces podemos contarnos entre eles) ás veces queren
crer que é posible deleitarse nos praceres sensuais sen dar lugar a
apego ou sufrimento. O Buda ensina a Migajāla que isto é francamente imposible.
Adantāgutta Sutta (SN 35.94) - palabra por palabra
    Aquí
está un deses consellos que son tan fáciles de entender co
entendemento, pero tan difíciles de entender en niveis máis profundos
porque as nosas vistas erradas interfiran constantemente no proceso. Polo tanto, necesitamos repetilo a miúdo, aínda que poida parecer aburrido.
Pamādavihārī Sutta (SN 35.97) - palabra por palabra
    O que fai a diferenza entre quen vive con neglixencia e quen vive coa vixilancia.
Sakkapañhā Sutta Sutta (SN 35.118) - palabra por palabra
    O Buda dá unha resposta bastante simple á pregunta de Sakka: cal é a
razón pola que algunhas persoas alcanzan o obxectivo final mentres que
outras non?
Rūpārāma Sutta (SN 35.137) - palabra por palabra
    O Buda explica por nós unha vez máis, de outro xeito, a causa eo cesamento do sufrimento. Ten lugar no medio do que seguimos facendo todo o día e toda a noite.
Aniccanibbānasappāya Sutta (SN 35.147) - palabra por palabra
    Aquí están as instrucións de hardcore vipassanā que abordan a
percepción da impermanencia para os meditadores avanzados que esperan
con ansia alcanzar Nibbāna.
Ajjhattānattahetu Sutta (SN 35.142) - palabra por palabra
    Como investigar as causas do xurdimento dos órganos sensoriais, en que
a característica de si mesmo non pode ser máis fácil de comprender,
permite a transferencia deste comprensión ao seu caso.
Samudda Sutta (SN 35.229) - tradución mellorada
    O que é o océano na disciplina dos nobres. ¡Coidado de non afundir nel!
Pahāna Sutta (SN 36.3) - tradución mellorada
    A relación entre os tres tipos de vedanā e tres dos anusayas.
Daṭṭhabba Sutta (SN 36.5) - tradución mellorada
    Como se deben ver os tres tipos de vedanā (sentimentos).
Salla Sutta (SN 36.6) - tradución mellorada
    Cando
se tira pola frecha da dor física, unha persoa imprudente empeora as
cousas mellorando a angustia mental encima, como se fose disparado por
dúas frechas. Un sabio sente a picadura dunha única frecha.
Anicca Sutta (SN 36.9) - tradución mellorada
    Sete características de vedanā (sentimentos), que tamén son aplicables
aos outros catro khandhas (SN 22.21) e cada un dos doce enlaces de
paṭicca · samuppāda (SN 12,20).
Phassamūlaka Sutta (SN 36.10) - palabra por palabra
    Os tres tipos de sentimentos están enraizados en tres tipos de contactos.
Aṭṭhasata Sutta (SN 36.22) - tradución mellorada
    O Buda expón vedanās de sete xeitos diferentes, analizándoos en dúas,
tres, cinco, seis, dezaoito, trinta e seis ou cen oito categorías.
Nirāmisa Sutta (SN 36.31) (extracto) - palabra por palabra
    Podemos entender aquí que o pīti, aínda que moitas veces aparece como bojjhaṅga, tamén pode ser ás veces akusala. Esta pasaxe tamén inclúe unha definición dos cinco kāmaguṇā.
Dhammavādīpañhā Sutta (SN 38.3) - tradución mellorada
    Quen profesa o Dhamma no mundo (dhamma · vādī)? Quen practica ben (su · p · paṭipanna)? Quen está saíndo ben (su · gata)?
Dukkara Sutta (SN 39.16) - tradución mellorada
    ¿Que é difícil facer neste ensino e disciplina?
Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 45.8) - palabra por palabra
    Aquí o Buda define precisamente cada factor do oito e nobre camiño.
Āgantuka Sutta (SN 45.159) - tradución mellorada
    Como o Camiño Nobre traballa co abhiññā de varios dhammas como hóspede acollendo varios tipos de visitantes.
Kusala Sutta (SN 46.32) - palabra por palabra
    Todo o que é vantaxoso únese nunha cousa.
Āhāra Sutta (SN 46.51) - tradución mellorada
    O Buda describe como podemos “alimentar” ou “morrer de fame” os
obstáculos e os factores de iluminación segundo o xeito no que nós
aplicamos a nosa atención.
Saṅgārava Sutta (SN 46.55) (extracto) - tradución mellorada
    Unha fermosa serie de similes para explicar como os cinco nīvaraṇas
(obstáculos) afectan a pureza da mente e a súa capacidade de percibir a
realidade tal como é.
Sati Sutta (SN 47.35) - palabra por palabra
    Neste sutta, o Buda recorda aos bhikkhus que sexan satos e sampajānos, e entón define estes dous términos.
Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 47.40) - palabra por palabra
    O satipaṭṭhānas ensinou en breve.
Daṭṭhabba Sutta (SN 48.8) - tradución mellorada
    Cada un dos cinco indriyas espirituais dise que se pode ver nun dhamma catro veces.
Saṃkhitta Sutta (SN 48.14) - tradución mellorada
    O cumprimento dos mesmos é todo o que debemos facer, e esta é a medida da nosa liberación.
Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 48.38) - tradución mellorada
    Aquí o Buda define os cinco indriyas sensibles.
Uppaṭipāṭika Sutta (SN 48.40)

Sāketa Sutta (SN 48.43) (extracto) - tradución mellorada
    Neste sutta, o Buda afirma que as balas e os indriyas poden considerarse como unha mesma cousa ou dúas cousas distintas.
Patiṭṭhita Sutta (SN 48.56) - tradución mellorada
    Hai un estado mental a través do cal todas as cinco facultades espirituais son perfeccionadas.
Bīja Sutta (SN 49.24) - tradución mellorada
    Un fermoso símil que ilustra como é a virtude fundamental para a práctica dos catro esforzos xustos.
Gantha Sutta (SN 50.102) - tradución mellorada
    Este sutta está baseado na interesante lista dos catro “nós
corporais”, e promove o desenvolvemento dos cinco puntos fortes
espirituais.
Viraddha Sutta (SN 51.2) - tradución mellorada
    Quen descoida estes descoidos o nobre camiño.
Chandasamādhi Sutta (SN 51.13) - tradución mellorada
    Este sutta explica claramente o significado das fórmulas que describen a práctica das iddhi · pādas.
Samaṇabrāhmaṇa Sutta (SN 51.17) - tradución mellorada
    Mentres no pasado, no futuro ou na actualidade, o que exercerá poderes
supernormales desenvolveu e practicaba asiduamente catro cousas.
Vidhā Sutta (SN 53.36) - tradución mellorada
    Recoméndase aos jhānas desfacerse dos tres tipos de presunción, que están relacionados coa comparación cos demais. Faino
claro que, se hai algunha xerarquía na Sangha, é só para fins prácticos
e non debe ser considerado como representativo de ningunha realidade. Non está ben claro se se trata dun sutta repetindo 16 veces o mesmo,
ou 16 suttas agrupados, ou 4 suttas que conteñen cada 4 repeticións.
Padīpopama Sutta (SN 54.8) - palabra por palabra
    Aquí o Buda explica ānāpānassati e recoméndalo por varios fins: abandonar as impurezas brutas, ao desenvolver os oito jhānas.
Saraṇānisakka Sutta (SN 55.24) - tradución mellorada
    Neste interesante discurso, o Buda afirma que nin sequera ten que ter
unha forte confianza no Buda, Dhamma e Sangha para converterse nun
gañador do fluxo no momento da morte.
Mahānāma Sutta (SN 55.37) - tradución mellorada
    O que significa ser un deixe laico laico, dotado de virtude, convicción, xenerosidade e discernimento.
Aṅga Sutta (SN 55.50) - palabra por palabra
    Os catro sotāpattiyaṅgas (factores de entrada de fluxo).
Samādhi Sutta (SN 56.1) - palabra por palabra
    O Buda exhorta aos bhikkhus a practicar samādhi, pois conduce á
comprensión das catro nobres verdades na súa verdadeira natureza.
Paṭisallāna Sutta (SN 56.2) - palabra por palabra
    O Buda exhorta aos bhikkhus a practicar a paṭisallāna, pois conduce á
comprensión das catro nobres verdades na súa verdadeira natureza.
Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (SN 56.11) - palabra por palabra
    Este é sen dúbida o sutta máis famoso da literatura de Pali. O Buda expón os catro ariya-saccas por primeira vez.
Saṅkāsanā Sutta (SN 56.19) - tradución mellorada
    A ensinanza das catro verdades nobres, por aburrido que pareza á mente
errante, é realmente moi profunda ea mente pode dedicarse todo o tempo a
investigar.
Siṃsapāvana Sutta (SN 56.31) - palabra por palabra
    O famoso sutta onde o Buda afirma que non ten interese nas ensinanzas que non están inmediatamente relacionadas co obxectivo.
Daṇḍa Sutta (SN 56.33) - tradución mellorada
    O símil contante do pau.

—— oooOooo ——

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/anguttara.html
">Aṅguttara Nikāya
- Os discursos dun factor adicional -
[aṅg: factor | uttara: adicional]

O Aṅguttara Nikāya contén miles de discursos curtos, que teñen a particularidade de ser estruturados como enumeracións. Está
dividido en once seccións, a primeira en relación a enumeracións dun
elemento, a segunda coas dúas de elementos, etc. O Buda, que nunca
empregou a escritura, pediu aos seus oíntes que estivesen atentos e
memorizar as súas instrucións. Para facer as palabras máis claras posible e facilitar esta
memorización, moitas veces presentou o seu ensino en forma de
enumeracións.

Nipātas
1. Ekaka Nipāta 7. Sattaka Nipāta
2. Duka Nipāta 8. Aṭṭhaka Nipāta
3. Tika Nipāta 9. Navaka Nipāta
4. Catuka Nipāta 10. Dasaka Nipāta
5. Pañcaka Nipāta 11. Ekādasaka Nipāta
6. Chakka Nipāta

—— oooOooo ——
1. Ekaka Nipāta

Rūpādi Vagga (AN 1.1-10) - palabra por palabra
    Existen cinco tipos de obxectos de sentido que dominan a mente de (a maioría) dos seres humanos máis que outros.
Nīvaraṇappahāna Vagga (AN 1.11-20) - palabra por palabra
    Os cinco domos que nutren de forma máis eficiente os cinco obstáculos e as cinco formas máis efectivas de disipar.
Akammaniya Vagga (AN 1.21-30) - palabra por palabra
    A mente pode ser o noso peor inimigo ou o noso mellor amigo.
Adanta Vagga (AN 1.31-40) - tradución mellorada
    A mente pode ser o noso peor inimigo ou o noso mellor amigo.

Udakarahaka Suttas (AN 1.45 e 46) - tradución mellorada
    A diferenza entre unha mente clara e unha fangosa.
Mudu Sutta (AN 1.47) - tradución mellorada
    Un símil para unha mente que é bastante.
Lahuparivatta Sutta (AN 1.48) - tradución mellorada
    O Buda, normalmente tan adepto en atopar similes, está aquí nunha perda.
Accharāsaṅghāta Peyyāla (AN 1.53-55) - palabra por palabra
    Practicar a boa vontade é un regalo digno.
Kusala Suttas (AN 1.56-73) - palabra por palabra
    Que produce e que elimina os estados mentales saudables e inhóspitos.
Pamāda Suttas (AN 1.58-59) - tradución mellorada
    Nada é tan desfavorable como este.
Pamādādi Vagga (AN 1.81-97) - palabra por palabra
    O Buda repetidamente advírtanos contra a descoidada.
Kāyagatāsati Vagga (AN 1.563-574) (extractos) - tradución mellorada
    O Buda fala en gran eloxio da atención dirixida ao corpo.

Ioga Sutta (AN 4.10) - tradución mellorada
    O que o Buda significa cando fala sobre ioga e yogakkhema (resto do xugo).
Padhāna Sutta (AN 4.13) - palabra por palabra
    Neste sutta, o Buda dá unha definición das sammappadhānas.
Aparihāniya Sutta (AN 4.37) - tradución mellorada
    Catro simples prácticas que fan incapaces de caer, xusto na presenza de Nibbāna.

Aparihāniya Sutta (AN 4.37) - tradución mellorada
    Catro simples prácticas que fan incapaces de caer, xusto na presenza de Nibbāna.
Samādhibhāvanā Sutta (AN 4.41) - palabra por palabra
    Os catro tipos de concentración que o Buda encomia. É bastante evidente aquí que non hai distinción clara entre samādhi e paññā.
Vipallāsa Sutta (AN 4.49) - palabra por palabra
    Neste sutta, o Buda describe a catro distorsións de saññā, citta e diṭṭhi.
Appamāda Sutta (AN 4.116) - tradución simple
    Catro instancias nas que se debe practicar con assiduidade.
Ārakkha Sutta (AN 4.117) - tradución simple
    Catro cousas que deben emprenderse con asiduidade, atención mentres protexen a mente.
Mettā Sutta (AN 4.125) - tradución mellorada
    Aquí o Buda explica que tipo de renacemento que practica de maneira
completa os catro Brahmavihāras que pode esperar e a gran vantaxe de ser
o seu discípulo.
Asubha Sutta (AN 4.163) - tradución mellorada
    As catro formas de practicar, de acordo co tipo de práctica elixido ea
intensidade ou debilidade dos puntos fortes e facturas espirituais.
Abhiññā Sutta (AN 4.254) - sen tradución
    Como o Camiño Nobre traballa co abhiññā de varios dhammas como hóspede acollendo varios tipos de visitantes.
Araña Sutta (AN 4.262) - tradución mellorada
    Que tipo de persoa é apto para vivir no deserto?

—— oooOooo ——

5. Pañcaka Nipāta

Vitthata Sutta (AN 5.2) - sen tradución
    Aquí o Buda define en detalle o que el chama os cinco Sekha-balas (esforzos dun adestrador). Este
sutta é facilmente comprensible sen necesidade dunha tradución
paralela, se fai referencia ás fórmulas Satta saddhammā como se suxerirá
no texto. O Pali-English Dictionary tamén está dispoñible, por si só.
Vitthata Sutta (AN 5.14) - palabra por palabra
    Aquí defínense os cinco fardos.
Samādhi Sutta (AN 5.27) - tradución mellorada
    Cinco coñecementos edificantes que se dan a quen practica a concentración ilimitada.
Akusalarāsi Sutta (AN 5.52) - tradución mellorada
    Falando con razón, o que se debe chamar ‘acumulación de deméritos’?
Abhiṇhapaccavekkhitabbaṭhāna Sutta (AN 5.57) {extracto} - palabra por palabra
    Como considerar o propio kamma.
Anāgatabhaya Sutta (AN 5.80) - tradución mellorada
    O Buda recorda aos monxes que a práctica do Dhamma non debe ser
desactivada para unha data posterior, pois non hai garantías de que o
futuro proporcionará oportunidades para a práctica.
Sekha Sutta (AN 5.89) - sen tradución
    O Buda recórdanos cinco cousas que deterioran a práctica, que para
todos os que desexen avanzar na formación son case tan importantes para
coñecer, recordar e integrar nos nosos estilos de vida como o
coñecemento dos cinco nívaraṇas estándar.
Sekha Sutta (AN 5.90) - tradución mellorada
    Cinco actitudes que conducen ao deterioro da práctica.
Sutadhara Sutta (AN 5.96) - tradución mellorada
    Cinco calidades son o líder que practica a atención da respiración á liberación en pouco tempo.
Kathā Sutta (AN 5.97) - tradución mellorada
    Cinco calidades son o líder que practica a atención da respiración á liberación en pouco tempo.
Āraññaka Sutta (AN 5.98) - tradución mellorada
    Cinco calidades son o líder que practica a atención da respiración á liberación en pouco tempo.
Andhakavinda Sutta (AN 5.114) - tradución mellorada
    Cinco cousas que o Buda exhortou aos seus monxes recentemente ordenados a facer.
Samayavimutta Sutta (AN 5.149) - sen tradución
    Cinco condicións en que o que gañou “liberación ocasional” retrocederá.
Samayavimutta Sutta (AN 5.150) - sen tradución
    Outro conxunto de cinco condicións baixo as cales o que gañou “liberación ocasional” retrocederá.
Vaṇijjā Sutta (AN 5.177) - tradución mellorada
    O Buda especifica aquí cinco oficios que non deben ser seguidos polos
seus seguidores laicos, entre os que se atopa o negocio da carne.
Gihī Sutta (AN 5.179) - tradución mellorada
    Neste sutta, o Buda dá maior precisión sobre a forma en que os catro
sotāpattiyaṅgas habituais deben ser internalizados para constituír as
condicións axeitadas para os sotāpatti.
Nissāraṇīya Sutta (AN 5.200) - tradución mellorada
    Este sutta declina cinco tipos de nissāraṇas.
Yāgu Sutta (AN 5.207) - tradución mellorada
    O Buda dá cinco vantaxes de comer arroz.
Dantakaṭṭha Sutta (AN 5.208) - tradución mellorada
    O Buda dá cinco razóns para usar un filtro de dentes.
Gītassara Sutta (AN 5.209) - palabra por palabra
    Este sutta foi en gran parte ignorado polas diversas tradicións
budistas: o Buda explica por que non permite que os bhikkhus realicen
cantos melódicos.
Muṭṭhassati Sutta (AN 5.210) - tradución mellorada
    As desvantaxes de adormecer sen sati e sampajañña adecuadas, e as respectivas vantaxes de facelo con elas.

Duccarita Sutta (AN 5.245) - tradución mellorada
    Outro sutta sobre os cinco perigos da duccarita e cinco vantaxes da sucarita.
Sivathika Sutta (AN 5.249) - tradución mellorada
    Cinco formas nas que unha persoa mal feita pode ser semellante a un charnel onde as persoas lanzan corpos mortos.
Puggalappasāda Sutta (AN 5.250) - tradución mellorada
    Aquí hai unha rara advertencia dada polo Buda sobre os perigos de poñer confianza en calquera.
Rāgassa abhiññāya Sutta (AN 5.303) - tradución mellorada
    Cinco cousas para practicar para o coñecemento directo de rāga.

Nanda Sutta (AN 8.9) {extracto} - palabra por palabra
O
Buda describe como Nanda, a pesar de ser presa do desexo do sentido
feroz, practica de xeito perspicaz segundo as súas instrucións. Este sutta contén unha definición de satisampajañña.

Mahānāma Sutta (AN 8.25) (extracto) - palabra por palabra
    Mahānāma pide ao Buda que defina o que é seguidor laico e que se espera que un seguidor laico sexa virtuoso.
Anuruddhamahāvitakka Sutta (AN 8.30) - poucas información · burbullas
    Sete pensamentos sabios que son verdadeiramente dignos de entender e lembrar ocorren a ven. Anuruddha. O Buda vénlle para ensinarlle o oitavo, dotado de que conseguirá arahanship. O Buda explica en detalle o significado deses pensamentos.
Abhisanda Sutta (AN 8.39) - tradución mellorada
    Aquí hai oito xeitos en que todos os discípulos graves do Buda crean moito mérito por si mesmos.
Duccaritavipāka Sutta (AN 8.40) - poucas información · burbullas
    Este sutta describe o tipo de sufrimento que se sofre debido ao non cumprimento dos preceptos principais.
Saṅkhitta Sutta (AN 8.53) - palabra por palabra
    O Buda dá aquí á súa ex enfermeira oito criterios para discriminar se
unha declaración dada pertence ao seu ensino ou non, o que pode ser útil
hoxe en día.
Dīghajāṇu Sutta (AN 8.54) (extracto) - textos simples
    Entre outras cousas, o Buda define neste sutta o que significa por xenerosidade.
Vimokkha Sutta (AN 8.66) - tradución mellorada
    Unha explicación dos oito vimokkhas (liberacións).
Parihāna Sutta (AN 8.79) - sen tradución
    O Buda explica cales son os oito dhammas que levan ao deterioro dun bhikkhu baixo adestramento.

—— oooOooo ——

9. Navaka Nipāta

Nāga Sutta (AN 9.40) - textos sinxelos
    Este sutta, coloreado con humor sutil, explica como un bhikkhu de
mente reforzada é comparable a un elefante solitario, ambos os cales son
chamados normalmente Nāga.
Tapussa Sutta (AN 9.41) {extracto} - textos simples
    Aquí saññā · vedayita · nirodha, o cese de saññā e vedanā preséntase como novena jhāna.
Sikkhādubbalya Sutta (AN 9.63) - palabra por palabra
    Que facer se aínda non é perfecto nos cinco preceptos.
Nīvaraṇa Sutta (AN 9.64) - palabra por palabra
    Como eliminar os cinco obstáculos.

—— oooOooo ——

10. Dasaka Nipāta

Saṃyojana Sutta (AN 10.13) - textos simples
    Este sutta moi curto enumera os dez saṃyojanas.
Kasiṇa Sutta (AN 10.25) - palabra por palabra
    Esta é a descrición estándar da práctica sobre os dez kasiṇas.
Girimānanda Sutta (AN 10.60) - tradución mellorada
    Para axudar a Girimānanda a recuperarse dunha grave enfermidade, o
Buda dá un gran ensino revisando dez tipos de percepcións moi útiles que
se poden desenvolver.
Kathāvatthu Sutta (AN 10.69) (extracto) - textos simples
    O Buda recorda aos bhikkhus que non debían falar e que deberían falar.
Cunda Sutta (AN 10.176) - algunhas informacións · burbullas
    O buda explica un significado máis profundo da pureza, en kāya, vācā e
maná, non en ritos ou rituais e demostra que o anterior subxace a este
último, cuxa ineficiencia faise obvia.

—— oooOooo ——

11. Ekādasaka Nipāta

30/03/2555
Mettā Sutta (AN 11.15) - poucas información · burbullas
    Once excelentes resultados que saen da práctica de mettā.

—— oooOooo ——

https://www.thenewsminute.com/…/karnataka-govt-gives-minori…

Karnataka govt gives minority status to Lingayats and Veerashaivas who follow Basava Tatva
The Akhila Bharata Veerashaiva Mahasabha has rejected the government’s
decision and called it a “move to divide the Veerashaiva-Lingayat
community”.

Theja Ram

Friday, March 23, 2018 - 20:11

The Karnataka government, on Thursday, granted minority status to Lingayats and Veerashaivas who believe in Basava Tatva.

According to a notification issued by the Department of Minority
Development Haj and Waqf, dated March 22, 2018, minority status has been
granted to the community.

“According to the Karnataka State
Minorities Commission Act 1994, Section 10, the state government has the
right to grant minority status to communities Hence Lingayats and the
Veerashaivas, who believe in Basava Tatva – Veerashaiva Lingayats have
been granted minority status,” the notification reads.

Speaking
to TNM, retired IAS officer, SN Jamdaar, who spearheaded the movement
for a separate minority religion status for Lingayats said that the
community welcomes the government’s move.

“Yes, the state
government has the power to grant minority status. Even the Supreme
Court Judgement in Bal Patil v/s Union of India in 2005 had stated that
the power rests with the state government,” he added.

Meanwhile,
the Akhila Bharata Veerashaiva Mahasabha has rejected the government’s
decision and called it a “move to divide the Veerashaiva-Lingayat
community”.

“If you are really interested in the community say
Veerashaiva and Lingayat is one and the same. Other than this, the govt
is saying everything else. Don’t create differences between person to
person and within the community,” the Mahasabha’s statement issued on
Friday said.

On Monday, the state cabinet approved Justice
Nagamohan Das Committee’s recommendation to grant Lingayats and
Veerashaivas who follow Basava Tatva a separate minority religion
status.

Lingayats, a distinct Shaivate religious tradition, are
followers of the 12th century poet-philosopher-social reformer
Basaveshwara who rebelled against established Hindu tradition by defying
the caste system and vedic rituals.

In their bid for a separate
religion status, the Lingayats wanted to dissociate themselves from
Veerashaivas, also a Shaivate religious tradition, whose followers
adhere to the Vedas.

“We have been asking for the Veerashaiva
faction to produce historical documents to back their claims but neither
did they do it when we were discussing a joint proposal, nor are they
doing it now” Jamdaar claimed.

The movement for a separate
religion tag, which was started as far back as 1942, was resurrected in
2017 after Chief Minister Siddaramaiah’s promise to look into the demand
for a separate religion status for Lingayats and Veerashaivas.

In December 2017, a seven-member expert committee was formed to study
five separate demands, three of which were for a separate minority
religion status for Lingayats. One representation stated that the
Lingayat community members are Hindus and another demanding minority
religion tag for the Veerashaiva-Lingayat sect.

—
Peace Is Doable

Karnataka govt gives minority status to Lingayats and Veerashaivas who follow Basava Tatva

The
Karnataka government, on Thursday, granted minority status to Lingayats
and Veerashaivas who believe in Basava Tatva. According to a
notification issued by…

thenewsminute.com

http://www.zdnet.com/…/another-data-leak-hits-india-aadhaa…/
A data leak on a system run by a state-owned utility company can
***allow anyone to download private information on ***all*** Aadhaar
holders, exposing their names, their unique 12-digit identity numbers,
and information about services they are connected to, such as their bank
details and other private information*** [emphasis added].
Karan
Saini, a New Delhi-based security researcher who found the vulnerable
endpoint, said that anyone with an Aadhaar number is affected.

***Yet the Indian authorities have done nothing to fix the flaw. ZDNet
spent more than a month trying to contact the Indian authorities, but
nobody responded to our repeated emails.*** [Emphasis added.]》

Yet this insanely absurd boast: ‘It will take longer than the age of the
universe for fastest computer to decode Aadhaar data, UIDAI CEO tells
SC (i.e. Supreme Court)’!
(Ref.:<http://www.thehindu.com/…/it-will-take-…/article23323580.ece>.)

And, it had been preceded by an incredible joke: ‘Aadhaar data kept behind 13-ft thick walls: Attorney General to SC’!
(Ref.: <http://www.business-standard.com/…/aadhaar-data-kept-behind…>.)]

http://www.zdnet.com/…/another-data-leak-hits-india-aadhaa…/

A new data leak hits Aadhaar, India’s national ID database
Exclusive: The data leak affects potentially every Indian citizen subscribed to the database.

Zack Whittaker
By Zack Whittaker for Zero Day | March 23, 2018 — 20:00 GMT (01:30 IST) | Topic: Mobility

0

Another data leak hits India’s national identity database, Aadhaar. (Image: file photo)

India’s national ID database has been hit by yet another major security lapse.

Known as Aadhaar, the government ID database is packed with identity
and biometric information — like fingerprints and iris scans — on more
than 1.1 billion registered Indian citizens, official figures show.
Anyone in the database can use their data — or their thumbprint — to
open a bank account, buy a cellular SIM card, enroll in utilities, and
even receive state aid or financial assistance. Even companies, like
Amazon and Uber, can tap into the Aadhaar database to identify their
customers.

MORE SECURITY NEWS
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Securing Facebook: Keep your data safe with these privacy settings
Enrolling in the database isn’t mandatory, but Indian citizens who
aren’t subscribed are unable to access even basic government services.
Other countries are set to follow India’s lead.

But the system
has been dogged with security problems — including, according to
India’s Tribune, a data breach. India’s ruling Bharatiya Janata
political party later called the report “fake news.”

Now, the database is leaking information on every Aadhaar holder, a security researcher has told ZDNet.

A data leak on a system run by a state-owned utility company can allow
anyone to download private information on all Aadhaar holders, exposing
their names, their unique 12-digit identity numbers, and information
about services they are connected to, such as their bank details and
other private information.

Karan Saini, a New Delhi-based
security researcher who found the vulnerable endpoint, said that anyone
with an Aadhaar number is affected.

Yet the Indian authorities
have done nothing to fix the flaw. ZDNet spent more than a month trying
to contact the Indian authorities, but nobody responded to our repeated
emails.

We later contacted the Indian Consulate in New York and
alerted Devi Prasad Misra, consul for trade and customs. Over two weeks,
this issue was explained in detail, and we responded to many follow-up
questions. A week passed, and the vulnerability was still not fixed. At
the start of this week, we told the consul that we would publish our
story on Friday and requested comment from the Indian government.

The consul did not respond to that last email. At the time of
publishing, the affected system is still online and vulnerable. For that
reason, we’re withholding specific details about the vulnerability
until it’s fixed. (Once it has been fixed, we will update the story with
additional details.)

The utility provider, which we are not
naming, has access to the Aadhaar database through an API, which the
company relies on to check a customer’s status and verify their
identity.

But because the company hasn’t secured the API, it’s
possible to retrieve private data on each Aadhaar holder, regardless of
whether they’re a customer of the utility provider or not.

The
API’s endpoint — a URL that we are not publishing — has no access
controls in place, said Saini. The affected endpoint uses a hardcoded
access token, which, when decoded, translates to
“INDAADHAARSECURESTATUS,” allowing anyone to query Aadhaar numbers
against the database without any additional authentication.

Saini
also found that the API doesn’t have any rate limiting in place,
allowing an attacker to cycle through every permutation — potentially
trillions — of Aadhaar numbers and obtain information each time a
successful result is hit.

He explained that it would be possible
to enumerate Aadhaar numbers by cycling through combinations, such as
1234 5678 0000 to 1234 5678 9999.

“An attacker is bound to find
some valid Aadhaar numbers there which could then be used to find their
corresponding details,” he said. And because there is no rate limiting,
Saini said he could send thousands of requests each minute — just from
one computer.

When Saini ran a handful of Aadhaar numbers (from
friends who gave him permission) through the endpoint, the server’s
response included the Aadhaar holder’s full name and their consumer
number — a unique customer number used by that utility provider. The
response also reveals information on connected bank accounts, said
Saini. Screenshots seen by ZDNet reveal details about which bank that
person uses — though, no other banking information was returned.

That seems to contradict a tweet by India’s Unique Identification
Authority (UIDAI), the government department that administers the
Aadhaar database, which said: “Aadhaar database does not keep any
information about bank accounts.”

Another tweet on the same day
by Ravi Shankar Prasad, India’s minister for electronics and information
technology, also said: “Aadhaar does not save the details of your bank
account.”

The endpoint doesn’t just pull data on the utility
provider’s customers; the API allows access to Aadhaar holders’
information who have connections with other utility companies, as well.

“From the requests that were sent to check for a rate limiting issue
and determine the possibility of stumbling across valid Aadhaar numbers,
I have found that this information is not retrieved from a static
database or a one-off data grab, but is clearly being updated — from as
early as 2014 to mid 2017,” he told ZDNet. “I cannot speculate whether
it is UIDAI that is providing this information to [the utility
provider], or if the banks or gas companies are, but it seems that
everyone’s information is available, with no authentication — no rate
limit, nothing.”

That data on the face of it may not be seen as
sensitive as leaked or exposed biometric data, but it nevertheless
contradicts the Indian government’s claims that the database is secure.

India’s former attorney general Mukul Rohtagi once said that a previous leak of Aadhaar numbers is “much ado about nothing.”

But access to Aadhaar numbers and corresponding names increases the risk of identity theft, or could lead to impersonation.

It’s long been believed that identity theft is one of the biggest
issues faced by both UIDAI and Aadhaar number holders. It’s been
reported that linking Aadhaar numbers to SIM cards has led to stolen
money and fraud.

The controversy surrounding the Aadhaar database
has been ongoing. A month ahead of the Indian election in 2014,
would-be prime minister Narendra Modi called the database’s security
into question.

“On Aadhaar, neither the team that I met nor PM
could answer my [questions] on security threat it can pose. There is no
vision, only political gimmick,” said Modi in a tweet.

Now, his
government is currently defending the identity scheme in front of the
country’s Supreme Court.. Critics have called the database
unconstitutional.

Until the court rules on the case, subscribing
to the database won’t be mandatory for Indian citizens. But that might
not be much solace for those whose information has been already
collected.

Contact me securely

Zack Whittaker can be
reached securely on Signal and WhatsApp at 646-755–8849, and his PGP
fingerprint for email is: 4D0E 92F2 E36A EC51 DAAE 5D97 CB8C 15FA EB6C
EEA5.

—
Peace Is Doable

A new data leak hits Aadhaar, India’s national ID database

Exclusive: The data leak affects potentially every Indian citizen subscribed to the database.

zdnet.com

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oa7SfpkhKrs
What a big deal!

How about Murderer of democratic institutions (Modi) referring to “Mrs
Sirisena” as “M R S Sirisena” (ref.: ‘Foolish Modi Calling Lankan
President’s Wife Mrs:Sirisena as M R S Sirisena : <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oa7SfpkhKrs>),
that too while reading out from a teleprompter, or claiming that
climate change is a mere illusion (ref.: ‘Climate change remarks by MOST
FOOLISH Modi’

Foolish Modi Calling Lankan President’s Wife Mrs:Sirisena as M R S Sirisena :D

Foolish Modi calling Mrs Sirisena as M R S Sirisena

youtube.com

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAdfHGAJPh4in (a rather rare unrehearsed) response to a school girl?

Climate change remarks by MOST “intelligent” Prime Minister of India - Narendra Modi

youtube.com

http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-43526413
The protests - under the banner March For Our Lives - have grown out of
a movement calling for change after 17 people were killed by a gunman
at a high school in Florida last month.

It is high time that the
99.9% Sarvajan Samaj grow out a movement against the fraud EVMs which
has negated the Universal Adult Franchise by gobbling the Master Key by
the Murderers of democratic institutions (Modi) of BJP (Brashtachar
Jiyadha Psychopaths for the stealth, shadowy, discriminatory hindutvas
cult of just 0.1% intorelant, cunning,crooked, number one terrorists of
the world violent, militant, ever shooting, lynching, lunatic, mentally
retarded chitpavan brahmins of RSSb (Rowdy Rakshasa Swayam Sevaks)

Half a million people are expected to descend on the biggest march in Washington DC.

More than 800 sister protests are planned nationwide and abroad.

Solidarity marches have taken place in London, Edinburgh, Geneva,
Sydney and Tokyo.]March For Our Lives: Huge gun-control rallies sweep US

21 minutes ago

Related TopicsFlorida school shooting

Media captionAmericans gather in Washington DC for its gun control rally
Mass student-led protests calling for tighter gun control are under way across the United States.

The protests - under the banner March For Our Lives - have grown out of
a movement calling for change after 17 people were killed by a gunman
at a high school in Florida last month.

Half a million people are expected to descend on the biggest march in Washington DC.

More than 800 sister protests are planned nationwide and abroad.

Solidarity marches have taken place in London, Edinburgh, Geneva, Sydney and Tokyo.

March For Our Lives: Live updates
In pictures: Marches across the US and worldwide

Participants want to seize on public outrage in the wake of the 14
February massacre at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland to
convince US politicians to finally take decisive action, including by
banning the sale of assault weapons.

However, the issue divides
Americans. The right to bear arms is protected under the 2nd amendment
of the US constitution and the National Rifle Association (NRA) gun
lobby remains highly influential.

The teenagers taking on the US gun lobby
Why I’m marching on Washington
America’s gun culture in 10 charts
President Donald Trump is at his Mar-a-Lago resort in Florida for the weekend.

On Saturday afternoon, the White House released a statement praising
the “many courageous young Americans exercising their First Amendment
rights today”.

It also cited steps it is taking to tackle gun
violence, including banning bump stocks, plus enacting the STOP School
Violence Act, which seeks to improve school security and increase
training for students, staff and local law enforcement.

There are also plans to improve criminal background records so gun buyers are properly vetted before making a purchase.

Image copyrightEPA
Image caption
Students gather on Washington’s Pennsylvania Avenue ahead of the march

Organisers say up to half a million people could rally in Washington
DC, which would make it the largest protest since last year’s women’s
march.

Singers Ariana Grande, Miley Cyrus and Lin-Manuel Miranda,
the man behind hit musical Hamilton, have performed on a stage erected
in front of the US Capitol building.

The music has been
interspersed with impassioned youth leaders calling for change,
including 17-year-old Edna Chavez, whose brother was shot and killed in a
south Los Angeles neighbourhood where, she said, it was normal to see
flowers and tributes on the streets.

“We will continue to fight for our dead friends,” said speaker Delaney Tarr, a Parkland student.

Some speeches came from children who are just 11 years old, including
Naomi Wadler, from Virginia, who spoke “to represent African-American
girls whose stories don’t make the front page of every national
newspaper”.

The BBC’s Jon Sopel in Washington says the protesters
there have strung out lines of photographs of students and teachers
killed in school shootings.

Skip Twitter post by @BBCJonSopel

View image on Twitter

Jon Sopel
✔

@BBCJonSopel
As far as the eye can see photos of young people and teachers killed in school shootings #MarchForOurLives

9:28 PM - Mar 24, 2018
313
207 people are talking about this
Twitter Ads info and privacy

Report
End of Twitter post by @BBCJonSopel
A demonstration has also been held in Parkland, with relatives of the victims speaking to crowds.

Image copyrightEPA
Image caption
No guns are allowed on the march route in Washington DC

‘My lost soulmate’
By Marianna Brady, BBC News, Washington

The crowds started to gather in the early hours of the morning outside
the US Capitol. Chants for “no more NRA” and “no more guns” erupt every
few minutes at random.

“He was my soulmate,” said Victoria Gonzalez, looking down at a sign of her boyfriend Joaquin Oliver..

Valentine’s Day - 14 February - started off as a great day for
Victoria. “Joaquin and I exchanged gifts in the morning and he walked me
to class. I was so happy.”

Later that day, she would learn that Joaquin was one of 17 people shot and killed at Marjory Stoneman Douglas school.

“It wasn’t real. It’s taken a while for it to sink in. I’m here today
so no one ever has to face this again,” she said, standing in a crowd of
several thousand ahead of the march.

“It gives me a lot of hope
seeing how many people are out here supporting us. It feels like the
whole entire world is on our side,” Victoria said.

What do young conservatives think?
At a rally in Houston, Texas, Mayor Sylvester Turner called the events a
defining moment in US history and announced a commission to tackle gun
violence on a local level.

Skip Twitter post by @SylvesterTurner
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Families of the victims of the 1996 school shooting in Dunblane,
Scotland, also joined a solidarity demonstration outside the US
consulate in Edinburgh.

In London, several hundred people
gathered outside the new US embassy in Vauxhall, carrying placards
addressed to US politicians and the NRA, saying “protect kids not guns”
and “books not bullets”. The crowd was a mix of US immigrants and
allies.

Some 69% of Americans think gun laws should be tightened,
according to a new poll by the Associated Press and the NORC Center for
Public Affairs Research, up from 61% in October 2016.

What’s happened since Parkland?
After pressure from students, Florida passed a gun control law that
raises the legal age for buying rifles in the state but also allows the
arming of school staff. The NRA sued the state, saying the law was
unconstitutional
In February, President Trump urged lawmakers to
work on bipartisan legislation, accusing them of being “petrified” of
the NRA. He supported raising the minimum age for gun purchases but
later appeared to back away from that proposal. The White House says he
wants to focus on measures that can get through Congress, like improved
background checks. He has also backed arming some teachers
Several major companies cut ties with the NRA amid a #BoycottNRA campaign, while chains like Walmart and Dick’s Sporting Goods announced new restrictions on gun sales
Earlier this month, students and school staff commemorated the Florida school shooting with a mass walkout

Media captionMarjory Stoneman Douglas students “excited and nervous” for Washington rally
Related Topics

http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-43526413

—
Peace Is Doable

Huge gun-control rallies sweep US

Student-led March For Our Lives events nationwide draw hundreds of thousands of protesters.

bbc.com

http://stopgangstalkingpolice.com/dictatorshipformasses.html

Ask: How Will My Rights Be Protected In A National Emergency?

Stop Oceanside and Carlsbad Police From Gang Stalking Citizens

Americans
are being put under surveillance or harassed by police in at least 36
states, said the ACLU. I have personally been GANG STALKED by police in
Oceanside, CA and Carlsbad, CA for four years. Tell the Oceanside and
Carlsbad, CA Police Departments participating in GOVERNMENT GANG
STALKING that…

stopgangstalkingpolice.com

https://scroll.in/article/873124/at-ankit-saxenas-birthday-prayer-meet-a-glimpse-of-india-as-it-should-be

http://www.danielpipes.org/comments/96475
Reality of Bajrang Dal , VHP , BJP ??

Better check the reality and your eyes will open ! VHP , Bajrang Dal ,
RSS fully support BJP . and all top three Muslim leaders of BJP have
Hindu ladies as wives……

Sikander Bakht

Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi

Shahnawaz Hussain

All three of them trapped Hindu Girls and married them and converted to
Islam. and same is the condition of Indian Film Industry “Bollywood” .
Every Khan Actor has links with Jehadis and Dawood Mafia Syndicate and
all of them have married to Hindu Girl and converted to Islam…….

Shahrukh Khan —–wife Gauri

Nawab Ali Khan Pataudi —Sharmila Tagore

Arbaaz Khan —Malaika Arora

Saif Ali Khan —–Amrita Singh

Amir Khan –First wife Reena and Second wife — Kiran Rao

Santoor Maestro Amjad Ali Khan’s wife is also Hindu

India’s most wanted Anchor Mohamad Suhaib ilyasi married to a Hindu
Girl Anju Singh , converted her to Islam , took all her property and
murdered her……..He was arrested and was in Jail but now released
becasue his father Mohamad ilyasi is president of All India Islamic Imam
Organisation.

Former Indian Cricket Captian : Mohamad Azharudeen wife is also Hindu Sangeeta Bijlaani..

and there are thousands of examples…….of Top and Educated Muslims also married Hindu Girls and converted to Islam………

Check the family members of L.K.Advani and Bal Thakrey …….near
relative girls of their family also eloped with muslims and later
converted to Islam………Top people in RSS know it . But they have no
guts to speak against this exploitation.

Go to Assam and check
that illegal bangladeshi muslim infiltrators have forcefully married
thousands of innocent assamese hindu girls from villages and converted
to Islam and now they are forced to give douzens to children to use
their wombs as weapons to destroy Democratic India by Demographic
Warfare…..

I wonder where is your Bajrang Dal , VHP ., Shiv
Sena , RSS , BJP and all other so called Pseudo Patriotic , Pseudo
Nationalist , Pseudo Hindutva organisations ??

This is true and face it………….

Reality of Bajrang Dal , VHP , BJP ?? :: Reader comments at Daniel Pipes

Reality of Bajrang Dal , VHP , BJP ?? :: Reader comments at Daniel Pipes

danielpipes.org

2571 Sun 25 Mar 2018 LESSON Article is about human language in general Language

Filed under: General
Posted by: site admin @ 7:08 pm

2571 Sun 25 Mar 2018 LESSON Article is about human language in general

Language

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A mural in Teotihuacan, Mexico (c. 2nd century) depicting a person emitting a speech scroll from his mouth, symbolizing speech

Cuneiform is the first known form of written language, but spoken language predates writing by at least tens of thousands of years.

Two girls learning American Sign Language

Braille writing, a tactile variant of a writing system

Language is a system that consists of the development, acquisition, maintenance and use of complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so; and a language is any specific example of such a system.

The scientific study of language is called linguistics. Questions concerning the philosophy of language, such as whether words can represent experience, have been debated at least since Gorgias and Plato in ancient Greece. Thinkers such as Rousseau have argued that language originated from emotions while others like Kant have held that it originated from rational and logical thought. 20th-century philosophers such as Wittgenstein argued that philosophy is really the study of language. Major figures in linguistics include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky.

Estimates of the number of human languages in the world vary between
5,000 and 7,000. However, any precise estimate depends on a partly
arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects. Natural languages are spoken or signed, but any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli – for example, in whistling, signed, or braille. This is because human language is modality-independent. Depending on philosophical perspectives regarding the definition of language and meaning, when used as a general concept, “language” may refer to the cognitive
ability to learn and use systems of complex communication, or to
describe the set of rules that makes up these systems, or the set of
utterances that can be produced from those rules. All languages rely on
the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings. Oral, manual and tactile languages contain a phonological system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes, and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances.

Human language has the properties of productivity and displacement,
and relies entirely on social convention and learning. Its complex
structure affords a much wider range of expressions than any known
system of animal communication. Language is thought to have originated when early hominins started gradually changing their primate communication systems, acquiring the ability to form a theory of other minds and a shared intentionality.^[1]^[2]
This development is sometimes thought to have coincided with an
increase in brain volume, and many linguists see the structures of
language as having evolved to serve specific communicative and social
functions. Language is processed in many different locations in the human brain, but especially in Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas. Humans acquire
language through social interaction in early childhood, and children
generally speak fluently by approximately three years old. The use of
language is deeply entrenched in human culture.
Therefore, in addition to its strictly communicative uses, language
also has many social and cultural uses, such as signifying group identity, social stratification, as well as social grooming and entertainment.

Languages evolve and diversify over time, and the history of their evolution can be reconstructed by comparing
modern languages to determine which traits their ancestral languages
must have had in order for the later developmental stages to occur. A
group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family. The Indo-European family is the most widely spoken and includes languages as diverse as English, Russian and Hindi; the Sino-Tibetan family, which includes Mandarin, Bodo and the other Chinese languages, and Tibetan; the Afro-Asiatic family, which includes Arabic, Somali, and Hebrew; the Bantu languages, which include Swahili, and Zulu, and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout Africa; and the Malayo-Polynesian languages, which include Indonesian, Malay, Tagalog, and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout the Pacific. The languages of the Dravidian family that are spoken mostly in Southern India include Tamil and Telugu.
Academic consensus holds that between 50% and 90% of languages spoken
at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100.

1 Definitions
- 1.1 Mental faculty, organ or instinct
- 1.2 Formal symbolic system
- 1.3 Tool for communication
- 1.4 Unique status of human language
2 Origin
3 Study
- 3.1 Subdisciplines
- 3.2 Early history
- 3.3 Contemporary linguistics
4 Physiological and neural architecture of language and speech
- 4.1 The brain
- 4.2 Anatomy of speech
5 Structure
- 5.1 Semantics
- 5.2 Sounds and symbols
- 5.3 Grammar
  - 5.3.1 Grammatical categories
  - 5.3.2 Word classes
  - 5.3.3 Morphology
  - 5.3.4 Syntax
- 5.4 Typology and universals
6 Social contexts of use and transmission
- 6.1 Usage and meaning
- 6.2 Acquisition
- 6.3 Culture
- 6.4 Writing, literacy and technology
- 6.5 Change
- 6.6 Contact
7 Linguistic diversity
- 7.1 Languages and dialects
- 7.2 Language families of the world
- 7.3 Language endangerment
8 See also
9 Notes
- 9.1 Commentary notes
- 9.2 Citations
10 Works cited
11 External links

Definitions

The English word language derives ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s “tongue, speech, language” through Latin lingua, “language; tongue”, and Old French language.^[3] The word is sometimes used to refer to codes, ciphers, and other kinds of artificially constructed communication systems such as formally defined computer languages used for computer programming. Unlike conventional human languages, a formal language in this sense is a system of signs for encoding and decoding information. This article specifically concerns the properties of natural human language as it is studied in the discipline of linguistics.

As an object of linguistic study, “language” has two primary
meanings: an abstract concept, and a specific linguistic system, e.g. “French“. The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, who defined the modern discipline of linguistics, first explicitly formulated the distinction using the French word langage for language as a concept, langue as a specific instance of a language system, and parole for the concrete usage of speech in a particular language.^[4]

When speaking of language as a general concept, definitions can be used which stress different aspects of the phenomenon.^[5]
These definitions also entail different approaches and understandings
of language, and they also inform different and often incompatible
schools of linguistic theory.^[6] Debates about the nature and origin of language go back to the ancient world. Greek philosophers such as Gorgias and Plato
debated the relation between words, concepts and reality. Gorgias
argued that language could represent neither the objective experience
nor human experience, and that communication and truth were therefore
impossible. Plato maintained that communication is possible because
language represents ideas and concepts that exist independently of, and
prior to, language.^[7]

During the Enlightenment and its debates about human origins, it became fashionable to speculate about the origin of language. Thinkers such as Rousseau and Herder
argued that language had originated in the instinctive expression of
emotions, and that it was originally closer to music and poetry than to
the logical expression of rational thought. Rationalist philosophers
such as Kant and Descartes
held the opposite view. Around the turn of the 20th century, thinkers
began to wonder about the role of language in shaping our experiences of
the world – asking whether language simply reflects the objective
structure of the world, or whether it creates concepts that it in turn
imposes on our experience of the objective world. This led to the
question of whether philosophical problems are really firstly linguistic
problems. The resurgence of the view that language plays a significant
role in the creation and circulation of concepts, and that the study of
philosophy is essentially the study of language, is associated with what
has been called the linguistic turn and philosophers such as Wittgenstein
in 20th-century philosophy. These debates about language in relation to
meaning and reference, cognition and consciousness remain active today.^[8]

Mental faculty, organ or instinct

One definition sees language primarily as the mental faculty
that allows humans to undertake linguistic behaviour: to learn
languages and to produce and understand utterances. This definition
stresses the universality of language to all humans, and it emphasizes
the biological basis for the human capacity for language as a unique
development of the human brain.
Proponents of the view that the drive to language acquisition is innate
in humans argue that this is supported by the fact that all cognitively
normal children raised in an environment where language is accessible
will acquire language without formal instruction. Languages may even
develop spontaneously in environments where people live or grow up
together without a common language; for example, creole languages and spontaneously developed sign languages such as Nicaraguan Sign Language. This view, which can be traced back to the philosophers Kant and Descartes, understands language to be largely innate, for example, in Chomsky’s theory of Universal Grammar, or American philosopher Jerry Fodor’s extreme innatist theory. These kinds of definitions are often applied in studies of language within a cognitive science framework and in neurolinguistics.^[9]^[10]

Formal symbolic system

Another definition sees language as a formal system
of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate
meaning. This definition stresses that human languages can be described
as closed structural systems consisting of rules that relate particular signs to particular meanings.^[11] This structuralist view of language was first introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure,^[12] and his structuralism remains foundational for many approaches to language.^[13]

Some proponents of Saussure’s view of language have advocated a
formal approach which studies language structure by identifying its
basic elements and then by presenting a formal account of the rules
according to which the elements combine in order to form words and
sentences. The main proponent of such a theory is Noam Chomsky, the originator of the generative theory of grammar, who has defined language as the construction of sentences that can be generated using transformational grammars.^[14] Chomsky considers these rules to be an innate feature of the human mind and to constitute the rudiments of what language is.^[15]
By way of contrast, such transformational grammars are also commonly
used to provide formal definitions of language are commonly used in formal logic, in formal theories of grammar, and in applied computational linguistics.^[16]^[17]
In the philosophy of language, the view of linguistic meaning as
residing in the logical relations between propositions and reality was
developed by philosophers such as Alfred Tarski, Bertrand Russell, and other formal logicians.

Tool for communication

A conversation in American Sign Language

Yet another definition sees language as a system of communication
that enables humans to exchange verbal or symbolic utterances. This
definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that
humans use it to express themselves and to manipulate objects in their
environment. Functional theories of grammar
explain grammatical structures by their communicative functions, and
understand the grammatical structures of language to be the result of an
adaptive process by which grammar was “tailored” to serve the
communicative needs of its users.^[18]^[19]

This view of language is associated with the study of language in pragmatic, cognitive, and interactive frameworks, as well as in sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology.
Functionalist theories tend to study grammar as dynamic phenomena, as
structures that are always in the process of changing as they are
employed by their speakers. This view places importance on the study of linguistic typology, or the classification of languages according to structural features, as it can be shown that processes of grammaticalization tend to follow trajectories that are partly dependent on typology.^[17] In the philosophy of language, the view of pragmatics as being central to language and meaning is often associated with Wittgenstein’s later works and with ordinary language philosophers such as J. L. Austin, Paul Grice, John Searle, and W. O. Quine.^[20]

Unique status of human language

A number of features, many of which were described by Charles Hockett and called design features^[21] set human language apart from other known systems of communication, such as those used by non-human animals.

Communication systems used by other animals such as bees or apes are closed systems that consist of a finite, usually very limited, number of possible ideas that can be expressed.^[22] In contrast, human language is open-ended and productive,
meaning that it allows humans to produce a vast range of utterances
from a finite set of elements, and to create new words and sentences.
This is possible because human language is based on a dual code, in
which a finite number of elements which are meaningless in themselves
(e.g. sounds, letters or gestures) can be combined to form an infinite
number of larger units of meaning (words and sentences).^[23]
However, one study has demonstrated that an Australian bird, the
chestnut-crowned babbler, is capable of using the same acoustic elements
in different arrangements to create two functionally distinct
vocalizations. ^[24]
Additionally, pied babblers have demonstrated the ability to generate
two functionally distinct vocalisations composed of the same sound type,
which can only be distinguished by the number of repeated elements. ^[25]

Several species of animals have proved to be able to acquire forms of communication through social learning: for instance a bonobo named Kanzi learned to express itself using a set of symbolic lexigrams.
Similarly, many species of birds and whales learn their songs by
imitating other members of their species. However, while some animals
may acquire large numbers of words and symbols,^{[note 1]}
none have been able to learn as many different signs as are generally
known by an average 4 year old human, nor have any acquired anything
resembling the complex grammar of human language.^[26]

Human languages also differ from animal communication systems in that they employ grammatical and semantic categories, such as noun and verb, present and past, which may be used to express exceedingly complex meanings.^[26] Human language is also unique in having the property of recursivity:
for example, a noun phrase can contain another noun phrase (as in
“[[the chimpanzee]’s lips]”) or a clause can contain another clause (as
in “[I see [the dog is running]]”).^[2] Human language is also the only known natural communication system whose adaptability may be referred to as modality independent.
This means that it can be used not only for communication through one
channel or medium, but through several. For example, spoken language
uses the auditive modality, whereas sign languages and writing use the visual modality, and braille writing uses the tactile modality.^[27]

Human language is also unique in being able to refer to abstract
concepts and to imagined or hypothetical events as well as events that
took place in the past or may happen in the future. This ability to
refer to events that are not at the same time or place as the speech
event is called displacement, and while some animal communication systems can use displacement (such as the communication of bees
that can communicate the location of sources of nectar that are out of
sight), the degree to which it is used in human language is also
considered unique.^[23]

Origin

“The Tower of Babel” by Pieter Bruegel the Elder. Oil on board, 1563.
Humans have speculated about the origins of language throughout history. The Biblical myth of the Tower of Babel is one such account; other cultures have different stories of how language arose.^[28]

Theories about the origin of language differ in regard to their basic
assumptions about what language is. Some theories are based on the idea
that language is so complex that one cannot imagine it simply appearing
from nothing in its final form, but that it must have evolved from
earlier pre-linguistic systems among our pre-human ancestors. These
theories can be called continuity-based theories. The opposite viewpoint
is that language is such a unique human trait that it cannot be
compared to anything found among non-humans and that it must therefore
have appeared suddenly in the transition from pre-hominids to early man.
These theories can be defined as discontinuity-based. Similarly,
theories based on Chomsky’s generative view of language see language
mostly as an innate faculty that is largely genetically encoded, whereas
functionalist theories see it as a system that is largely cultural,
learned through social interaction.^[29]

One prominent proponent of a discontinuity-based theory of human language origins is linguist and philosopher Noam Chomsky.^[29]
Chomsky proposes that “some random mutation took place, maybe after
some strange cosmic ray shower, and it reorganized the brain, implanting
a language organ in an otherwise primate brain.”^[30]
Though cautioning against taking this story too literally, Chomsky
insists that “it may be closer to reality than many other fairy tales
that are told about evolutionary processes, including language.”^[30]

Continuity-based theories are held by a majority of scholars, but
they vary in how they envision this development. Those who see language
as being mostly innate, for example psychologist Steven Pinker, hold the precedents to be animal cognition,^[10] whereas those who see language as a socially learned tool of communication, such as psychologist Michael Tomasello, see it as having developed from animal communication in primates: either gestural or vocal communication to assist in cooperation.^[31] Other continuity-based models see language as having developed from music, a view already espoused by Rousseau, Herder, Humboldt, and Charles Darwin. A prominent proponent of this view is archaeologist Steven Mithen.^[32] Stephen Anderson states that the age of spoken languages is estimated at 60,000 to 100,000 years^[33] and that:

Researchers on the evolutionary origin of language generally find it
plausible to suggest that language was invented only once, and that all
modern spoken languages are thus in some way related, even if that
relation can no longer be recovered … because of limitations on the
methods available for reconstruction.^[34]

Because language emerged in the early prehistory
of man, before the existence of any written records, its early
development has left no historical traces, and it is believed that no
comparable processes can be observed today. Theories that stress
continuity often look at animals to see if, for example, primates
display any traits that can be seen as analogous to what pre-human
language must have been like. And early human fossils can be inspected
for traces of physical adaptation to language use or pre-linguistic
forms of symbolic behaviour. Among the signs in human fossils that may
suggest linguistic abilities are: the size of the brain relative to body
mass, the presence of a larynx capable of advanced sound production and the nature of tools and other manufactured artifacts.^[35]

It was mostly undisputed that pre-human australopithecines did not have communication systems significantly different from those found in great apes in general. However, a 2017 study on Ardipithecus ramidus challenges this belief.^[36] Scholarly opinions vary as to the developments since the appearance of the genus Homo
some 2.5 million years ago. Some scholars assume the development of
primitive language-like systems (proto-language) as early as Homo habilis (2.3 million years ago) while others place the development of primitive symbolic communication only with Homo erectus (1.8 million years ago) or Homo heidelbergensis (0.6 million years ago), and the development of language proper with Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens with the Upper Paleolithic revolution less than 100,000 years ago.^[37]^[38]

Study

William Jones discovered the family relation between Latin and Sanskrit, laying the ground for the discipline of historical linguistics.

Ferdinand de Saussure developed the structuralist approach to studying language.

Noam Chomsky is one of the most important linguistic theorists of the 20th century.

The study of language, linguistics, has been developing into a science since the first grammatical descriptions of particular languages in India more than 2000 years ago, after the development of the Brahmi script.
Modern linguistics is a science that concerns itself with all aspects
of language, examining it from all of the theoretical viewpoints
described above.^[39]

Subdisciplines

The academic study of language is conducted within many different
disciplinary areas and from different theoretical angles, all of which
inform modern approaches to linguistics. For example, descriptive linguistics examines the grammar of single languages, theoretical linguistics
develops theories on how best to conceptualize and define the nature of
language based on data from the various extant human languages, sociolinguistics
studies how languages are used for social purposes informing in turn
the study of the social functions of language and grammatical
description, neurolinguistics studies how language is processed in the human brain and allows the experimental testing of theories, computational linguistics
builds on theoretical and descriptive linguistics to construct
computational models of language often aimed at processing natural
language or at testing linguistic hypotheses, and historical linguistics
relies on grammatical and lexical descriptions of languages to trace
their individual histories and reconstruct trees of language families by
using the comparative method.^[40]

Early history

The formal study of language is often considered to have started in India with Pāṇini, the 5th century BC grammarian who formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology. However, Sumerian scribes already studied the differences between Sumerian and Akkadian grammar around 1900 BC. Subsequent grammatical traditions developed in all of the ancient cultures that adopted writing.^[41]

In the 17th century AD, the French Port-Royal Grammarians
developed the idea that the grammars of all languages were a reflection
of the universal basics of thought, and therefore that grammar was
universal. In the 18th century, the first use of the comparative method by British philologist and expert on ancient India William Jones sparked the rise of comparative linguistics.^[42] The scientific study of language was broadened from Indo-European to language in general by Wilhelm von Humboldt. Early in the 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure introduced the idea of language as a static system of interconnected units, defined through the oppositions between them.^[12]

By introducing a distinction between diachronic and synchronic
analyses of language, he laid the foundation of the modern discipline
of linguistics. Saussure also introduced several basic dimensions of
linguistic analysis that are still fundamental in many contemporary
linguistic theories, such as the distinctions between syntagm and paradigm, and the Langue-parole distinction, distinguishing language as an abstract system (langue), from language as a concrete manifestation of this system (parole).^[43]

Contemporary linguistics

In the 1960s, Noam Chomsky formulated the generative theory of language.
According to this theory, the most basic form of language is a set of
syntactic rules that is universal for all humans and which underlies the
grammars of all human languages. This set of rules is called Universal Grammar;
for Chomsky, describing it is the primary objective of the discipline
of linguistics. Thus, he considered that the grammars of individual
languages are only of importance to linguistics insofar as they allow us
to deduce the universal underlying rules from which the observable
linguistic variability is generated.^[44]

In opposition to the formal theories of the generative school, functional theories of language
propose that since language is fundamentally a tool, its structures are
best analyzed and understood by reference to their functions. Formal theories of grammar
seek to define the different elements of language and describe the way
they relate to each other as systems of formal rules or operations,
while functional theories seek to define the functions performed by
language and then relate them to the linguistic elements that carry them
out.^[17]^{[note 2]} The framework of cognitive linguistics
interprets language in terms of the concepts (which are sometimes
universal, and sometimes specific to a particular language) which
underlie its forms. Cognitive linguistics is primarily concerned with
how the mind creates meaning through language.^[45]

Physiological and neural architecture of language and speech

Speaking is the default modality for language in all cultures. The
production of spoken language depends on sophisticated capacities for
controlling the lips, tongue and other components of the vocal
apparatus, the ability to acoustically decode speech sounds, and the
neurological apparatus required for acquiring and producing language.^[46] The study of the genetic bases for human language is at an early stage: the only gene that has definitely been implicated in language production is FOXP2, which may cause a kind of congenital language disorder if affected by mutations.^[47]

The brain

Language Areas of the brain. The Angular Gyrus is represented in orange, Supramarginal Gyrus is represented in yellow, Broca’s area is represented in blue, Wernicke’s area is represented in green, and the Primary Auditory Cortex is represented in pink.

The brain is the coordinating center of all linguistic activity; it
controls both the production of linguistic cognition and of meaning and
the mechanics of speech production. Nonetheless, our knowledge of the
neurological bases for language is quite limited, though it has advanced
considerably with the use of modern imaging techniques. The discipline
of linguistics dedicated to studying the neurological aspects of
language is called neurolinguistics.^[48]

Early work in neurolinguistics involved the study of language in
people with brain lesions, to see how lesions in specific areas affect
language and speech. In this way, neuroscientists in the 19th century
discovered that two areas in the brain are crucially implicated in
language processing. The first area is Wernicke’s area, which is located in the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus in the dominant cerebral hemisphere. People with a lesion in this area of the brain develop receptive aphasia,
a condition in which there is a major impairment of language
comprehension, while speech retains a natural-sounding rhythm and a
relatively normal sentence structure. The second area is Broca’s area, located in the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the dominant hemisphere. People with a lesion to this area develop expressive aphasia, meaning that they know what they want to say, they just cannot get it out.^[49]
They are typically able to understand what is being said to them, but
unable to speak fluently. Other symptoms that may be present in
expressive aphasia include problems with fluency, articulation,
word-finding, word repetition,
and producing and comprehending complex grammatical sentences, both
orally and in writing. Those with this aphasia also exhibit
ungrammatical speech and show inability to use syntactic information to
determine the meaning of sentences. Both expressive and receptive
aphasia also affect the use of sign language, in analogous ways to how
they affect speech, with expressive aphasia causing signers to sign
slowly and with incorrect grammar, whereas a signer with receptive
aphasia will sign fluently, but make little sense to others and have
difficulties comprehending others’ signs. This shows that the impairment
is specific to the ability to use language, not to the physiology used
for speech production.^[50]^[51]

With technological advances in the late 20th century, neurolinguists have also incorporated non-invasive techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electrophysiology to study language processing in individuals without impairments.^[48]

Anatomy of speech

The human vocal tract.

Spectrogram of American English vowels [i, u, ɑ] showing the formants f₁ and f₂

Play media

Real time MRI scan of a person speaking in Mandarin Chinese

Spoken language relies on human physical ability to produce sound, which is a longitudinal wave propagated through the air at a frequency capable of vibrating the ear drum. This ability depends on the physiology of the human speech organs. These organs consist of the lungs, the voice box (larynx),
and the upper vocal tract – the throat, the mouth, and the nose. By
controlling the different parts of the speech apparatus, the airstream
can be manipulated to produce different speech sounds.^[52]

The sound of speech can be analyzed into a combination of segmental and suprasegmental
elements. The segmental elements are those that follow each other in
sequences, which are usually represented by distinct letters in
alphabetic scripts, such as the Roman script. In free flowing speech,
there are no clear boundaries between one segment and the next, nor
usually are there any audible pauses between words. Segments therefore
are distinguished by their distinct sounds which are a result of their
different articulations, and they can be either vowels or consonants.
Suprasegmental phenomena encompass such elements as stress, phonation type, voice timbre, and prosody or intonation, all of which may have effects across multiple segments.^[53]

Consonants and vowel segments combine to form syllables, which in turn combine to form utterances; these can be distinguished phonetically as the space between two inhalations. Acoustically, these different segments are characterized by different formant structures, that are visible in a spectrogram
of the recorded sound wave (See illustration of Spectrogram of the
formant structures of three English vowels). Formants are the amplitude
peaks in the frequency spectrum of a specific sound.^[53]^[54]

Vowels are those sounds that have no audible friction caused by the
narrowing or obstruction of some part of the upper vocal tract. They
vary in quality according to the degree of lip aperture and the
placement of the tongue within the oral cavity.^[53] Vowels are called close when the lips are relatively closed, as in the pronunciation of the vowel [i] (English “ee”), or open when the lips are relatively open, as in the vowel [a] (English “ah”). If the tongue is located towards the back of the mouth, the quality changes, creating vowels such as [u] (English “oo”). The quality also changes depending on whether the lips are rounded as opposed to unrounded, creating distinctions such as that between [i] (unrounded front vowel such as English “ee”) and [y] (rounded front vowel such as German “ü”).^[55]

Consonants are those sounds that have audible friction or closure at
some point within the upper vocal tract. Consonant sounds vary by place
of articulation, i.e. the place in the vocal tract where the airflow is
obstructed, commonly at the lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, palate, velum, uvula, or glottis. Each place of articulation produces a different set of consonant sounds, which are further distinguished by manner of articulation, or the kind of friction, whether full closure, in which case the consonant is called occlusive or stop, or different degrees of aperture creating fricatives and approximants. Consonants can also be either voiced or unvoiced,
depending on whether the vocal cords are set in vibration by airflow
during the production of the sound. Voicing is what separates English [s] in bus (unvoiced sibilant) from [z] in buzz (voiced sibilant).^[56]

Some speech sounds, both vowels and consonants, involve release of air flow through the nasal cavity, and these are called nasals or nasalized sounds. Other sounds are defined by the way the tongue moves within the mouth: such as the l-sounds (called laterals, because the air flows along both sides of the tongue), and the r-sounds (called rhotics) that are characterized by how the tongue is positioned relative to the air stream.^[54]

By using these speech organs, humans can produce hundreds of distinct
sounds: some appear very often in the world’s languages, whereas others
are much more common in certain language families, language areas, or
even specific to a single language.^[57]

Structure

When described as a system of symbolic communication, language is traditionally seen as consisting of three parts: signs, meanings, and a code connecting signs with their meanings. The study of the process of semiosis, how signs and meanings are combined, used, and interpreted is called semiotics.
Signs can be composed of sounds, gestures, letters, or symbols,
depending on whether the language is spoken, signed, or written, and
they can be combined into complex signs, such as words and phrases. When
used in communication, a sign is encoded and transmitted by a sender
through a channel to a receiver who decodes it.^[58]

Ancient Tamil inscription at Thanjavur

Some of the properties that define human language as opposed to other
communication systems are: the arbitrariness of the linguistic sign,
meaning that there is no predictable connection between a linguistic
sign and its meaning; the duality of the linguistic system, meaning that
linguistic structures are built by combining elements into larger
structures that can be seen as layered, e.g. how sounds build words and
words build phrases; the discreteness of the elements of language,
meaning that the elements out of which linguistic signs are constructed
are discrete units, e.g. sounds and words, that can be distinguished
from each other and rearranged in different patterns; and the
productivity of the linguistic system, meaning that the finite number of
linguistic elements can be combined into a theoretically infinite
number of combinations.^[58]

The rules by which signs can be combined to form words and phrases are called syntax or grammar. The meaning that is connected to individual signs, morphemes, words, phrases, and texts is called semantics.^[59]
The division of language into separate but connected systems of sign
and meaning goes back to the first linguistic studies of de Saussure and
is now used in almost all branches of linguistics.^[60]

Semantics

Languages express meaning by relating a sign form to a meaning, or
its content. Sign forms must be something that can be perceived, for
example, in sounds, images, or gestures, and then related to a specific
meaning by social convention. Because the basic relation of meaning for
most linguistic signs is based on social convention, linguistic signs
can be considered arbitrary, in the sense that the convention is
established socially and historically, rather than by means of a natural
relation between a specific sign form and its meaning.

Thus, languages must have a vocabulary of signs related to specific meaning. The English sign “dog” denotes, for example, a member of the species Canis familiaris. In a language, the array of arbitrary signs connected to specific meanings is called the lexicon, and a single sign connected to a meaning is called a lexeme.
Not all meanings in a language are represented by single words. Often,
semantic concepts are embedded in the morphology or syntax of the
language in the form of grammatical categories.^[61]

All languages contain the semantic structure of predication:
a structure that predicates a property, state, or action.
Traditionally, semantics has been understood to be the study of how
speakers and interpreters assign truth values
to statements, so that meaning is understood to be the process by which
a predicate can be said to be true or false about an entity, e.g. “[x
[is y]]” or “[x [does y]]”. Recently, this model of semantics has been
complemented with more dynamic models of meaning that incorporate shared
knowledge about the context in which a sign is interpreted into the
production of meaning. Such models of meaning are explored in the field
of pragmatics.^[61]

Sounds and symbols

A spectrogram showing the sound of the spoken English word “man”, which is written phonetically as [mæn].
Note that in flowing speech, there is no clear division between
segments, only a smooth transition as the vocal apparatus moves.

The syllable “wi” in the Hangul script

The sign for “wi” in Korean Sign Language (see Korean manual alphabet)

Depending on modality, language structure can be based on systems of
sounds (speech), gestures (sign languages), or graphic or tactile
symbols (writing). The ways in which languages use sounds or signs to
construct meaning are studied in phonology.^[62] The study of how humans produce and perceive vocal sounds is called phonetics.^[63]
In spoken language, meaning is produced when sounds become part of a
system in which some sounds can contribute to expressing meaning and
others do not. In any given language, only a limited number of the many
distinct sounds that can be created by the human vocal apparatus
contribute to constructing meaning.^[57]

Sounds as part of a linguistic system are called phonemes.^[64]
Phonemes are abstract units of sound, defined as the smallest units in a
language that can serve to distinguish between the meaning of a pair of
minimally different words, a so-called minimal pair. In English, for example, the words bat [bæt] and pat [pʰæt] form a minimal pair, in which the distinction between /b/ and /p/
differentiates the two words, which have different meanings. However,
each language contrasts sounds in different ways. For example, in a
language that does not distinguish between voiced and unvoiced
consonants, the sounds [p] and [b]
(if they both occur) could be considered a single phoneme, and
consequently, the two pronunciations would have the same meaning.
Similarly, the English language does not distinguish phonemically
between aspirated and non-aspirated pronunciations of consonants, as many other languages like Korean and Hindi do: the unaspirated /p/ in spin [spɪn] and the aspirated /p/ in pin [pʰɪn] are considered to be merely different ways of pronouncing the same phoneme (such variants of a single phoneme are called allophones), whereas in Mandarin Chinese, the same difference in pronunciation distinguishes between the words [pʰá] ‘crouch’ and [pá] ‘eight’ (the accent above the á means that the vowel is pronounced with a high tone).^[65]

All spoken languages have phonemes of at least two different categories, vowels and consonants, that can be combined to form syllables.^[53]
As well as segments such as consonants and vowels, some languages also
use sound in other ways to convey meaning. Many languages, for example,
use stress, pitch, duration, and tone to distinguish meaning. Because these phenomena operate outside of the level of single segments, they are called suprasegmental.^[66] Some languages have only a few phonemes, for example, Rotokas and Pirahã language with 11 and 10 phonemes respectively, whereas languages like Taa may have as many as 141 phonemes.^[65] In sign languages, the equivalent to phonemes (formerly called cheremes)
are defined by the basic elements of gestures, such as hand shape,
orientation, location, and motion, which correspond to manners of
articulation in spoken language.^[67]^[68]^[69]

Writing systems represent language using visual symbols, which may or may not correspond to the sounds of spoken language. The Latin alphabet
(and those on which it is based or that have been derived from it) was
originally based on the representation of single sounds, so that words
were constructed from letters that generally denote a single consonant
or vowel in the structure of the word. In syllabic scripts, such as the Inuktitut syllabary, each sign represents a whole syllable. In logographic scripts, each sign represents an entire word,^[70] and will generally bear no relation to the sound of that word in spoken language.

Because all languages have a very large number of words, no purely
logographic scripts are known to exist. Written language represents the
way spoken sounds and words follow one after another by arranging
symbols according to a pattern that follows a certain direction. The
direction used in a writing system is entirely arbitrary and established
by convention. Some writing systems use the horizontal axis (left to
right as the Latin script or right to left as the Arabic script),
while others such as traditional Chinese writing use the vertical
dimension (from top to bottom). A few writing systems use opposite
directions for alternating lines, and others, such as the ancient Maya
script, can be written in either direction and rely on graphic cues to
show the reader the direction of reading.^[71]

In order to represent the sounds of the world’s languages in writing, linguists have developed the International Phonetic Alphabet, designed to represent all of the discrete sounds that are known to contribute to meaning in human languages.^[72]

Grammar

Grammar is the study of how meaningful elements called morphemes within a language can be combined into utterances. Morphemes can either be free or bound. If they are free to be moved around within an utterance, they are usually called words, and if they are bound to other words or morphemes, they are called affixes.
The way in which meaningful elements can be combined within a language
is governed by rules. The rules for the internal structure of words are
called morphology. The rules of the internal structure of phrases and sentences are called syntax.^[73]

Grammatical categories

Grammar can be described as a system of categories and a set of rules
that determine how categories combine to form different aspects of
meaning.^[74]
Languages differ widely in whether they are encoded through the use of
categories or lexical units. However, several categories are so common
as to be nearly universal. Such universal categories include the
encoding of the grammatical relations of participants and predicates by
grammatically distinguishing between their relations to a predicate, the encoding of temporal and spatial relations on predicates, and a system of grammatical person governing reference to and distinction between speakers and addressees and those about whom they are speaking.^[75]

Word classes

Languages organize their parts of speech
into classes according to their functions and positions relative to
other parts. All languages, for instance, make a basic distinction
between a group of words that prototypically denotes things and concepts
and a group of words that prototypically denotes actions and events.
The first group, which includes English words such as “dog” and “song”,
are usually called nouns. The second, which includes “run” and “sing”, are called verbs. Another common category is the adjective:
words that describe properties or qualities of nouns, such as “red” or
“big”. Word classes can be “open” if new words can continuously be added
to the class, or relatively “closed” if there is a fixed number of
words in a class. In English, the class of pronouns is closed, whereas
the class of adjectives is open, since an infinite number of adjectives
can be constructed from verbs (e.g. “saddened”) or nouns (e.g. with the
-like suffix, as in “noun-like”). In other languages such as Korean, the situation is the opposite, and new pronouns can be constructed, whereas the number of adjectives is fixed.^[76]

Word classes also carry out differing functions in grammar. Prototypically, verbs are used to construct predicates, while nouns are used as arguments
of predicates. In a sentence such as “Sally runs”, the predicate is
“runs”, because it is the word that predicates a specific state about
its argument “Sally”. Some verbs such as “curse” can take two arguments,
e.g. “Sally cursed John”. A predicate that can only take a single
argument is called intransitive, while a predicate that can take two arguments is called transitive.^[77]

Many other word classes exist in different languages, such as conjunctions like “and” that serve to join two sentences, articles that introduce a noun, interjections such as “wow!”, or ideophones
like “splash” that mimic the sound of some event. Some languages have
positionals that describe the spatial position of an event or entity.
Many languages have classifiers that identify countable nouns as belonging to a particular type or having a particular shape. For instance, in Japanese, the general noun classifier for humans is nin (人), and it is used for counting humans, whatever they are called:^[78]

san-nin no gakusei (三人の学生) lit. “3 human-classifier of student” — three students

For trees, it would be:

san-bon no ki (三本の木) lit. “3 classifier-for-long-objects of tree” — three trees

Morphology

In linguistics, the study of the internal structure of complex words and the processes by which words are formed is called morphology. In most languages, it is possible to construct complex words that are built of several morphemes.
For instance, the English word “unexpected” can be analyzed as being
composed of the three morphemes “un-”, “expect” and “-ed”.^[79]

Morphemes can be classified according to whether they are independent morphemes, so-called roots, or whether they can only co-occur attached to other morphemes. These bound morphemes or affixes can be classified according to their position in relation to the root: prefixes precede the root, suffixes follow the root, and infixes
are inserted in the middle of a root. Affixes serve to modify or
elaborate the meaning of the root. Some languages change the meaning of
words by changing the phonological structure of a word, for example, the
English word “run”, which in the past tense is “ran”. This process is
called ablaut. Furthermore, morphology distinguishes between the process of inflection, which modifies or elaborates on a word, and the process of derivation,
which creates a new word from an existing one. In English, the verb
“sing” has the inflectional forms “singing” and “sung”, which are both
verbs, and the derivational form “singer”, which is a noun derived from
the verb with the agentive suffix “-er”.^[80]

Languages differ widely in how much they rely on morphological
processes of word formation. In some languages, for example, Chinese,
there are no morphological processes, and all grammatical information is
encoded syntactically by forming strings of single words. This type of
morpho-syntax is often called isolating,
or analytic, because there is almost a full correspondence between a
single word and a single aspect of meaning. Most languages have words
consisting of several morphemes, but they vary in the degree to which
morphemes are discrete units. In many languages, notably in most
Indo-European languages, single morphemes may have several distinct
meanings that cannot be analyzed into smaller segments. For example, in
Latin, the word bonus, or “good”, consists of the root bon-, meaning “good”, and the suffix -us, which indicates masculine gender, singular number, and nominative case. These languages are called fusional languages, because several meanings may be fused into a single morpheme. The opposite of fusional languages are agglutinative languages
which construct words by stringing morphemes together in chains, but
with each morpheme as a discrete semantic unit. An example of such a
language is Turkish, where for example, the word evlerinizden, or “from your houses”, consists of the morphemes, ev-ler-iniz-den with the meanings house-plural-your-from. The languages that rely on morphology to the greatest extent are traditionally called polysynthetic languages. They may express the equivalent of an entire English sentence in a single word. For example, in Persian the single word nafahmidamesh means I didn’t understand it consisting of morphemes na-fahm-id-am-esh with the meanings, “negation.understand.past.I.it”. As another example with more complexity, in the Yupik word tuntussuqatarniksatengqiggtuq, which means “He had not yet said again that he was going to hunt reindeer”, the word consists of the morphemes tuntu-ssur-qatar-ni-ksaite-ngqiggte-uq with the meanings, “reindeer-hunt-future-say-negation-again-third.person.singular.indicative”, and except for the morpheme tuntu (”reindeer”) none of the other morphemes can appear in isolation.^[81]

Many languages use morphology to cross-reference words within a sentence. This is sometimes called agreement.
For example, in many Indo-European languages, adjectives must
cross-reference the noun they modify in terms of number, case, and
gender, so that the Latin adjective bonus, or “good”, is
inflected to agree with a noun that is masculine gender, singular
number, and nominative case. In many polysynthetic languages, verbs
cross-reference their subjects and objects. In these types of languages,
a single verb may include information that would require an entire
sentence in English. For example, in the Basque phrase ikusi nauzu, or “you saw me”, the past tense auxiliary verb n-au-zu (similar to English “do”) agrees with both the subject (you) expressed by the n- prefix, and with the object (me) expressed by the – zu suffix. The sentence could be directly transliterated as “see you-did-me”^[82]

Syntax

In addition to word classes, a sentence can be analyzed in terms of grammatical functions: “The cat” is the subject of the phrase, “on the mat” is a locative phrase, and “sat” is the core of the predicate.

Another way in which languages convey meaning is through the order of
words within a sentence. The grammatical rules for how to produce new
sentences from words that are already known is called syntax. The
syntactical rules of a language determine why a sentence in English such
as “I love you” is meaningful, but “*love you I” is not.^{[note 3]}
Syntactical rules determine how word order and sentence structure is
constrained, and how those constraints contribute to meaning.^[83]
For example, in English, the two sentences “the slaves were cursing the
master” and “the master was cursing the slaves” mean different things,
because the role of the grammatical subject is encoded by the noun being
in front of the verb, and the role of object is encoded by the noun
appearing after the verb. Conversely, in Latin, both Dominus servos vituperabat and Servos vituperabat dominus mean “the master was reprimanding the slaves”, because servos, or “slaves”, is in the accusative case, showing that they are the grammatical object of the sentence, and dominus, or “master”, is in the nominative case, showing that he is the subject.^[84]

Latin uses morphology to express the distinction between subject and
object, whereas English uses word order. Another example of how
syntactic rules contribute to meaning is the rule of inverse word order in questions,
which exists in many languages. This rule explains why when in English,
the phrase “John is talking to Lucy” is turned into a question, it
becomes “Who is John talking to?”, and not “John is talking to who?”.
The latter example may be used as a way of placing special emphasis
on “who”, thereby slightly altering the meaning of the question. Syntax
also includes the rules for how complex sentences are structured by
grouping words together in units, called phrases,
that can occupy different places in a larger syntactic structure.
Sentences can be described as consisting of phrases connected in a tree
structure, connecting the phrases to each other at different levels.^[85]
To the right is a graphic representation of the syntactic analysis of
the English sentence “the cat sat on the mat”. The sentence is analyzed
as being constituted by a noun phrase, a verb, and a prepositional
phrase; the prepositional phrase is further divided into a preposition
and a noun phrase, and the noun phrases consist of an article and a
noun.^[86]

The reason sentences can be seen as being composed of phrases is
because each phrase would be moved around as a single element if
syntactic operations were carried out. For example, “the cat” is one
phrase, and “on the mat” is another, because they would be treated as
single units if a decision was made to emphasize the location by moving
forward the prepositional phrase: “[And] on the mat, the cat sat”.^[86]
There are many different formalist and functionalist frameworks that
propose theories for describing syntactic structures, based on different
assumptions about what language is and how it should be described. Each
of them would analyze a sentence such as this in a different manner.^[17]

Typology and universals

Languages can be classified in relation to their grammatical types.
Languages that belong to different families nonetheless often have
features in common, and these shared features tend to correlate.^[87] For example, languages can be classified on the basis of their basic word order, the relative order of the verb, and its constituents in a normal indicative sentence. In English, the basic order is SVO: “The snake(S) bit(V) the man(O)”, whereas for example, the corresponding sentence in the Australian language Gamilaraay would be d̪uyugu n̪ama d̪ayn yiːy (snake man bit), SOV.^[88]
Word order type is relevant as a typological parameter, because basic
word order type corresponds with other syntactic parameters, such as the
relative order of nouns and adjectives, or of the use of prepositions or postpositions. Such correlations are called implicational universals.^[89] For example, most (but not all) languages that are of the SOV type have postpositions rather than prepositions, and have adjectives before nouns.^[90]

All languages structure sentences into Subject, Verb, and Object, but
languages differ in the way they classify the relations between actors
and actions. English uses the nominative-accusative
word typology: in English transitive clauses, the subjects of both
intransitive sentences (”I run”) and transitive sentences (”I love you”)
are treated in the same way, shown here by the nominative pronoun I. Some languages, called ergative,
Gamilaraay among them, distinguish instead between Agents and Patients.
In ergative languages, the single participant in an intransitive
sentence, such as “I run”, is treated the same as the patient in a
transitive sentence, giving the equivalent of “me run”. Only in
transitive sentences would the equivalent of the pronoun “I” be used.^[88]
In this way the semantic roles can map onto the grammatical relations
in different ways, grouping an intransitive subject either with Agents
(accusative type) or Patients (ergative type) or even making each of the
three roles differently, which is called the tripartite type.^[91]

The shared features of languages which belong to the same typological
class type may have arisen completely independently. Their
co-occurrence might be due to universal laws governing the structure of
natural languages, “language universals”, or they might be the result of
languages evolving convergent solutions to the recurring communicative
problems that humans use language to solve.^[18]

Social contexts of use and transmission

The Wall of Love in Paris, where the phrase “I love you” is featured in 250 languages of the world^[92]

While humans have the ability to learn any language, they only do so
if they grow up in an environment in which language exists and is used
by others. Language is therefore dependent on communities of speakers in which children learn language
from their elders and peers and themselves transmit language to their
own children. Languages are used by those who speak them to communicate and to solve a plethora of social tasks. Many aspects of language use can be seen to be adapted specifically to these purposes.^[18]
Due to the way in which language is transmitted between generations and
within communities, language perpetually changes, diversifying into new
languages or converging due to language contact. The process is similar to the process of evolution, where the process of descent with modification leads to the formation of a phylogenetic tree.^[93]

However, languages differ from biological organisms in that they
readily incorporate elements from other languages through the process of
diffusion, as speakers of different languages come into contact. Humans also frequently speak more than one language, acquiring their first language
or languages as children, or learning new languages as they grow up.
Because of the increased language contact in the globalizing world, many
small languages are becoming endangered
as their speakers shift to other languages that afford the possibility
to participate in larger and more influential speech communities.^[94]

Usage and meaning

The semantic study of meaning assumes that meaning is located in a
relation between signs and meanings that are firmly established through
social convention. However, semantics does not study the way in which
social conventions are made and affect language. Rather, when studying
the way in which words and signs are used, it is often the case that
words have different meanings, depending on the social context of use.
An important example of this is the process called deixis,
which describes the way in which certain words refer to entities
through their relation between a specific point in time and space when
the word is uttered. Such words are, for example, the word, “I” (which
designates the person speaking), “now” (which designates the moment of
speaking), and “here” (which designates the position of speaking). Signs
also change their meanings over time, as the conventions governing
their usage gradually change. The study of how the meaning of linguistic
expressions changes depending on context is called pragmatics. Deixis
is an important part of the way that we use language to point out
entities in the world.^[95]
Pragmatics is concerned with the ways in which language use is
patterned and how these patterns contribute to meaning. For example, in
all languages, linguistic expressions can be used not just to transmit
information, but to perform actions. Certain actions are made only
through language, but nonetheless have tangible effects, e.g. the act of
“naming”, which creates a new name for some entity, or the act of
“pronouncing someone man and wife”, which creates a social contract of
marriage. These types of acts are called speech acts, although they can also be carried out through writing or hand signing.^[96]

The form of linguistic expression often does not correspond to the
meaning that it actually has in a social context. For example, if at a
dinner table a person asks, “Can you reach the salt?”, that is, in fact,
not a question about the length of the arms of the one being addressed,
but a request to pass the salt across the table. This meaning is
implied by the context in which it is spoken; these kinds of effects of
meaning are called conversational implicatures.
These social rules for which ways of using language are considered
appropriate in certain situations and how utterances are to be
understood in relation to their context vary between communities, and
learning them is a large part of acquiring communicative competence in a language.^[97]

Acquisition

All healthy, normally developing
human beings learn to use language. Children acquire the language or
languages used around them: whichever languages they receive sufficient
exposure to during childhood. The development is essentially the same
for children acquiring sign or oral languages.^[98]
This learning process is referred to as first-language acquisition,
since unlike many other kinds of learning, it requires no direct
teaching or specialized study. In The Descent of Man, naturalist Charles Darwin called this process “an instinctive tendency to acquire an art”.^[10]

A lesson at Kituwah Academy on the Qualla Boundary in North Carolina, where the Cherokee language is the medium of instruction from pre-school on up and students learn it as a first language

First language acquisition proceeds in a fairly regular sequence,
though there is a wide degree of variation in the timing of particular
stages among normally developing infants. From birth, newborns respond
more readily to human speech than to other sounds. Around one month of
age, babies appear to be able to distinguish between different speech sounds. Around six months of age, a child will begin babbling, producing the speech sounds or handshapes of the languages used around them. Words appear around the age of 12 to 18 months; the average vocabulary of an eighteen-month-old child is around 50 words. A child’s first utterances are holophrases
(literally “whole-sentences”), utterances that use just one word to
communicate some idea. Several months after a child begins producing
words, he or she will produce two-word utterances, and within a few more
months will begin to produce telegraphic speech, or short sentences that are less grammatically
complex than adult speech, but that do show regular syntactic
structure. From roughly the age of three to five years, a child’s
ability to speak or sign is refined to the point that it resembles adult
language.^[99]^[100] Studies published in 2013 have indicated that unborn fetuses are capable of language acquisition to some degree.^[101]^[102]

Acquisition of second and additional languages can come at any age,
through exposure in daily life or courses. Children learning a second
language are more likely to achieve native-like fluency than adults, but
in general, it is very rare for someone speaking a second language to
pass completely for a native speaker. An important difference between
first language acquisition and additional language acquisition is that
the process of additional language acquisition is influenced by
languages that the learner already knows.^[103]

Culture

Arnold Lakhovsky, The Conversation (c. 1935)

Languages, understood as the particular set of speech norms of a
particular community, are also a part of the larger culture of the
community that speaks them. Languages differ not only in pronunciation,
vocabulary, and grammar, but also through having different “cultures of
speaking.” Humans use language as a way of signalling identity with one
cultural group as well as difference from others. Even among speakers of
one language, several different ways of using the language exist, and
each is used to signal affiliation with particular subgroups within a
larger culture. Linguists and anthropologists, particularly sociolinguists, ethnolinguists, and linguistic anthropologists have specialized in studying how ways of speaking vary between speech communities.^[104]

Linguists use the term “varieties” to refer to the different ways of speaking a language. This term includes geographically or socioculturally defined dialects as well as the jargons or styles of subcultures.
Linguistic anthropologists and sociologists of language define
communicative style as the ways that language is used and understood
within a particular culture.^[105]

Because norms for language use are shared by members of a specific
group, communicative style also becomes a way of displaying and
constructing group identity. Linguistic differences may become salient
markers of divisions between social groups, for example, speaking a
language with a particular accent may imply membership of an ethnic
minority or social class, one’s area of origin, or status as a second
language speaker. These kinds of differences are not part of the
linguistic system, but are an important part of how people use language
as a social tool for constructing groups.^[106]

However, many languages also have grammatical conventions that signal
the social position of the speaker in relation to others through the
use of registers that are related to social hierarchies or divisions. In
many languages, there are stylistic or even grammatical differences
between the ways men and women speak, between age groups, or between social classes, just as some languages employ different words depending on who is listening. For example, in the Australian language Dyirbal, a married man must use a special set of words to refer to everyday items when speaking in the presence of his mother-in-law.^[107] Some cultures, for example, have elaborate systems of “social deixis“, or systems of signalling social distance through linguistic means.^[108]
In English, social deixis is shown mostly through distinguishing
between addressing some people by first name and others by surname, and
in titles such as “Mrs.”, “boy”, “Doctor”, or “Your Honor”, but in other
languages, such systems may be highly complex and codified in the
entire grammar and vocabulary of the language. For instance, in
languages of east Asia such as Thai, Burmese, and Javanese,
different words are used according to whether a speaker is addressing
someone of higher or lower rank than oneself in a ranking system with
animals and children ranking the lowest and gods and members of royalty
as the highest.^[108]

Writing, literacy and technology

An inscription of Swampy Cree using Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, an abugida developed by Christian missionaries for Indigenous Canadian languages

Throughout history a number of different ways of representing language in graphic media have been invented. These are called writing systems.

The use of writing has made language even more useful to humans. It
makes it possible to store large amounts of information outside of the
human body and retrieve it again, and it allows communication across
distances that would otherwise be impossible. Many languages
conventionally employ different genres, styles, and registers in written
and spoken language, and in some communities, writing traditionally
takes place in an entirely different language than the one spoken. There
is some evidence that the use of writing also has effects on the
cognitive development of humans, perhaps because acquiring literacy
generally requires explicit and formal education.^[109]

The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the beginning of the Bronze Age in the late 4th millennium BC. The Sumerian archaic cuneiform script and the Egyptian hieroglyphs
are generally considered to be the earliest writing systems, both
emerging out of their ancestral proto-literate symbol systems from
3400–3200 BC with the earliest coherent texts from about 2600 BC.
It is generally agreed that Sumerian writing was an independent
invention; however, it is debated whether Egyptian writing was developed
completely independently of Sumerian, or was a case of cultural diffusion. A similar debate exists for the Chinese script, which developed around 1200 BC. The pre-Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems (including among others Olmec and Maya scripts) are generally believed to have had independent origins.^[71]

Change

The first page of the poem Beowulf, written in Old English
in the early medieval period (800–1100 AD). Although Old English is the
direct ancestor of modern English, it is unintelligible to contemporary
English speakers.

All languages change as speakers adopt or invent new ways of speaking
and pass them on to other members of their speech community. Language
change happens at all levels from the phonological level to the levels
of vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and discourse. Even though language
change is often initially evaluated negatively by speakers of the
language who often consider changes to be “decay” or a sign of slipping
norms of language usage, it is natural and inevitable.^[110]

Changes may affect specific sounds or the entire phonological system. Sound change can consist of the replacement of one speech sound or phonetic feature
by another, the complete loss of the affected sound, or even the
introduction of a new sound in a place where there had been none. Sound
changes can be conditioned in which case a sound is changed only
if it occurs in the vicinity of certain other sounds. Sound change is
usually assumed to be regular, which means that it is expected to
apply mechanically whenever its structural conditions are met,
irrespective of any non-phonological factors. On the other hand, sound
changes can sometimes be sporadic, affecting only one particular word or a few words, without any seeming regularity. Sometimes a simple change triggers a chain shift in which the entire phonological system is affected. This happened in the Germanic languages when the sound change known as Grimm’s law affected all the stop consonants in the system. The original consonant *bʰ became /b/ in the Germanic languages, the previous *b in turn became /p/, and the previous *p became /f/. The same process applied to all stop consonants and explains why Italic languages such as Latin have p in words like pater and pisces, whereas Germanic languages, like English, have father and fish.^[111]

Another example is the Great Vowel Shift
in English, which is the reason that the spelling of English vowels do
not correspond well to their current pronunciation. This is because the
vowel shift brought the already established orthography out of
synchronization with pronunciation. Another source of sound change is
the erosion of words as pronunciation gradually becomes increasingly
indistinct and shortens words, leaving out syllables or sounds. This
kind of change caused Latin mea domina to eventually become the French madame and American English ma’am.^[112]

Change also happens in the grammar of languages as discourse patterns such as idioms or particular constructions become grammaticalized.
This frequently happens when words or morphemes erode and the
grammatical system is unconsciously rearranged to compensate for the
lost element. For example, in some varieties of Caribbean Spanish the final /s/ has eroded away. Since Standard Spanish uses final /s/ in the morpheme marking the second person subject “you” in verbs, the Caribbean varieties now have to express the second person using the pronoun tú. This means that the sentence “what’s your name” is ¿como te llamas? [ˈkomo te ˈjamas] in Standard Spanish, but [ˈkomo ˈtu te ˈjama] in Caribbean Spanish. The simple sound change has affected both morphology and syntax.^[113]
Another common cause of grammatical change is the gradual petrification
of idioms into new grammatical forms, for example, the way the English
“going to” construction lost its aspect of movement and in some
varieties of English has almost become a full-fledged future tense (e.g.
I’m gonna).

Language change may be motivated by “language internal” factors, such
as changes in pronunciation motivated by certain sounds being difficult
to distinguish aurally or to produce, or through patterns of change
that cause some rare types of constructions to drift towards more common types.^[114]
Other causes of language change are social, such as when certain
pronunciations become emblematic of membership in certain groups, such
as social classes, or with ideologies,
and therefore are adopted by those who wish to identify with those
groups or ideas. In this way, issues of identity and politics can have
profound effects on language structure.^[115]

Contact

One important source of language change is contact and resulting diffusion of linguistic traits between languages. Language contact occurs when speakers of two or more languages or varieties interact on a regular basis.^[116] Multilingualism is likely to have been the norm throughout human history and most people in the modern world are multilingual. Before the rise of the concept of the ethno-national state,
monolingualism was characteristic mainly of populations inhabiting
small islands. But with the ideology that made one people, one state,
and one language the most desirable political arrangement,
monolingualism started to spread throughout the world. Nonetheless,
there are only 250 countries in the world corresponding to some 6000
languages, which means that most countries are multilingual and most
languages therefore exist in close contact with other languages.^[117]

When speakers of different languages interact closely, it is typical
for their languages to influence each other. Through sustained language
contact over long periods, linguistic traits diffuse between languages,
and languages belonging to different families may converge to become
more similar. In areas where many languages are in close contact, this
may lead to the formation of language areas
in which unrelated languages share a number of linguistic features. A
number of such language areas have been documented, among them, the Balkan language area, the Mesoamerican language area, and the Ethiopian language area. Also, larger areas such as South Asia, Europe, and Southeast Asia have sometimes been considered language areas, because of widespread diffusion of specific areal features.^[118]^[119]

Language contact may also lead to a variety of other linguistic phenomena, including language convergence, borrowing, and relexification
(replacement of much of the native vocabulary with that of another
language). In situations of extreme and sustained language contact, it
may lead to the formation of new mixed languages that cannot be considered to belong to a single language family. One type of mixed language called pidgins
occurs when adult speakers of two different languages interact on a
regular basis, but in a situation where neither group learns to speak
the language of the other group fluently. In such a case, they will
often construct a communication form that has traits of both languages,
but which has a simplified grammatical and phonological structure. The
language comes to contain mostly the grammatical and phonological
categories that exist in both languages. Pidgin languages are defined by
not having any native speakers, but only being spoken by people who
have another language as their first language. But if a Pidgin language
becomes the main language of a speech community, then eventually
children will grow up learning the pidgin as their first language. As
the generation of child learners grow up, the pidgin will often be seen
to change its structure and acquire a greater degree of complexity. This
type of language is generally called a creole language. An example of such mixed languages is Tok Pisin, the official language of Papua New-Guinea, which originally arose as a Pidgin based on English and Austronesian languages; others are Kreyòl ayisyen, the French-based creole language spoken in Haiti, and Michif, a mixed language of Canada, based on the Native American language Cree and French.^[120]

Linguistic diversity

Language	Native speakers (millions)^[121]
Mandarin	848
Spanish	329 ^{[note 4]}
English	328
Portuguese	250
Arabic	221
Hindi	182
Bengali	181
Russian	144
Japanese	122
Javanese	84.3

SIL Ethnologue
defines a “living language” as “one that has at least one speaker for
whom it is their first language”. The exact number of known living
languages varies from 6,000 to 7,000, depending on the precision of
one’s definition of “language”, and in particular, on how one defines
the distinction between languages and dialects. As of 2016, Ethnologue cataloged 7,097 living human languages.^[122] The Ethnologue establishes linguistic groups based on studies of mutual intelligibility, and therefore often includes more categories than more conservative classifications. For example, the Danish language that most scholars consider a single language with several dialects is classified as two distinct languages (Danish and Jutish) by the Ethnologue.^[121]

According to the Ethnologue, 389 languages (nearly 6%) have
more than a million speakers. These languages together account for 94%
of the world’s population, whereas 94% of the world’s languages account
for the remaining 6% of the global population. To the right is a table
of the world’s 10 most spoken languages with population estimates from
the Ethnologue (2009 figures).^[121]

Languages and dialects

Multi-lingual sign outside the mayor’s office in Novi Sad, written in the four official languages of the city: Serbian, Hungarian, Slovak, and Pannonian Rusyn

There is no clear distinction between a language and a dialect, notwithstanding a famous aphorism attributed to linguist Max Weinreich that “a language is a dialect with an army and navy“.^[123]
For example, national boundaries frequently override linguistic
difference in determining whether two linguistic varieties are languages
or dialects. Hakka, Cantonese and Mandarin are, for example, often classified as “dialects” of Chinese, even though they are more different from each other than Swedish is from Norwegian. Before the Yugoslav civil war, Serbo-Croatian was considered a single language with two dialects, but now Croatian and Serbian
are considered different languages and employ different writing
systems. In other words, the distinction may hinge on political
considerations as much as on cultural differences, distinctive writing systems, or degree of mutual intelligibility.^[124]

Language families of the world

Principal language families of the world (and in some cases geographic groups of families). For greater detail, see Distribution of languages in the world.

The world’s languages can be grouped into language families
consisting of languages that can be shown to have common ancestry.
Linguists recognize many hundreds of language families, although some of
them can possibly be grouped into larger units as more evidence becomes
available and in-depth studies are carried out. At present, there are
also dozens of language isolates: languages that cannot be shown to be related to any other languages in the world. Among them are Basque, spoken in Europe, Zuni of New Mexico, Purépecha of Mexico, Ainu of Japan, Burushaski of Pakistan, and many others.^[125]

The language family of the world that has the most speakers is the Indo-European languages, spoken by 46% of the world’s population.^[126] This family includes major world languages like English, Spanish, Russian, and Hindustani (Hindi/Urdu). The Indo-European family achieved prevalence first during the Eurasian Migration Period (c. 400–800 AD),^{[citation needed]} and subsequently through the European colonial expansion, which brought the Indo-European languages to a politically and often numerically dominant position in the Americas and much of Africa. The Sino-Tibetan languages are spoken by 20%^[126] of the world’s population and include many of the languages of East Asia, including Hakka, Mandarin Chinese, Cantonese, and hundreds of smaller languages.^[127]

Africa is home to a large number of language families, the largest of which is the Niger-Congo language family, which includes such languages as Swahili, Shona, and Yoruba. Speakers of the Niger-Congo languages account for 6.9% of the world’s population.^[126] A similar number of people speak the Afroasiatic languages, which include the populous Semitic languages such as Arabic, Hebrew language, and the languages of the Sahara region, such as the Berber languages and Hausa.^[127]

The Austronesian languages are spoken by 5.5% of the world’s population and stretch from Madagascar to maritime Southeast Asia all the way to Oceania.^[126] It includes such languages as Malagasy, Māori, Samoan, and many of the indigenous languages of Indonesia and Taiwan.
The Austronesian languages are considered to have originated in Taiwan
around 3000 BC and spread through the Oceanic region through
island-hopping, based on an advanced nautical technology. Other populous
language families are the Dravidian languages of South Asia (among them Kannada Tamil and Telugu), the Turkic languages of Central Asia (such as Turkish), the Austroasiatic (among them Khmer), and Tai–Kadai languages of Southeast Asia (including Thai).^[127]

The areas of the world in which there is the greatest linguistic diversity, such as the Americas, Papua New Guinea, West Africa,
and South-Asia, contain hundreds of small language families. These
areas together account for the majority of the world’s languages, though
not the majority of speakers. In the Americas, some of the largest
language families include the Quechumaran, Arawak, and Tupi-Guarani families of South America, the Uto-Aztecan, Oto-Manguean, and Mayan of Mesoamerica, and the Na-Dene, Iroquoian, and Algonquian language families of North America. In Australia, most indigenous languages belong to the Pama-Nyungan family, whereas New Guinea is home to a large number of small families and isolates, as well as a number of Austronesian languages.^[125]

Language endangerment

Together, the eight countries in red contain more than 50% of the
world’s languages. The areas in blue are the most linguistically diverse
in the world, and the locations of most of the world’s endangered
languages.

Language endangerment occurs when a language is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or shift to speaking another language. Language loss occurs when the language has no more native speakers, and becomes a dead language. If eventually no one speaks the language at all, it becomes an extinct language.
While languages have always gone extinct throughout human history, they
have been disappearing at an accelerated rate in the 20th and 21st
centuries due to the processes of globalization and neo-colonialism, where the economically powerful languages dominate other languages.^[128]

The more commonly spoken languages dominate the less commonly spoken
languages, so the less commonly spoken languages eventually disappear
from populations. The total number of languages in the world is not
known. Estimates vary depending on many factors. The consensus is that
there are between 6,000^[129] and 7,000 languages spoken as of 2010, and that between 50–90% of those will have become extinct by the year 2100.^[128] The top 20 languages,
those spoken by more than 50 million speakers each, are spoken by 50%
of the world’s population, whereas many of the other languages are
spoken by small communities, most of them with less than 10,000
speakers.^[128]

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) operates with five levels of language endangerment: “safe”,
“vulnerable” (not spoken by children outside the home), “definitely
endangered” (not spoken by children), “severely endangered” (only spoken
by the oldest generations), and “critically endangered” (spoken by few
members of the oldest generation, often semi-speakers). Notwithstanding claims that the world would be better off if most adopted a single common lingua franca, such as English or Esperanto,
there is a consensus that the loss of languages harms the cultural
diversity of the world. It is a common belief, going back to the
biblical narrative of the tower of Babel in the Old Testament, that linguistic diversity causes political conflict,^[28]
but this is contradicted by the fact that many of the world’s major
episodes of violence have taken place in situations with low linguistic
diversity, such as the Yugoslav and American Civil War, or the genocide of Rwanda, whereas many of the most stable political units have been highly multilingual.^[130]

Many projects aim to prevent or slow this loss by revitalizing endangered languages and promoting education and literacy in minority languages. Across the world, many countries have enacted specific legislation to protect and stabilize the language of indigenous speech communities.
A minority of linguists have argued that language loss is a natural
process that should not be counteracted, and that documenting endangered
languages for posterity is sufficient.^[131]

Notes

Commentary notes

The gorilla Koko reportedly uses as many as 1000 words in American Sign Language,
and understands 2000 words of spoken English. There are some doubts
about whether her use of signs is based on complex understanding or
simple conditioning; Candland (1993).

“Functional
grammar analyzes grammatical structure, as do formal and structural
grammar; but it also analyzes the entire communicative situation: the
purpose of the speech event, its participants, its discourse context.
Functionalists maintain that the communicative situation motivates,
constrains, explains, or otherwise determines grammatical structure, and
that a structural or formal approaches not merely limited to an
artificially restricted data base, but is inadequate even as a
structural account. Functional grammar, then, differs from formal and
structural grammar in that it purports not to model but to explain; and
the explanation is grounded in the communicative situation”; Nichols (1984)

The prefixed asterisk * conventionally indicates that the sentence is ungrammatical, i.e. syntactically incorrect.

Ethnologue’s figure is based on numbers from before 1995. A more recent figure is 420 million; “Primer estudio conjunto del Instituto Cervantes y el British Council sobre el peso internacional del español y del inglés”. Instituto Cervantes (www.cervantes.es).

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03/23/18

2570 Sat 24 Mar 2018 LESSON

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/

Buddha Vacana
— The words of the Buddha —

in 28 Classical Frisian-Klassike Frysk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CnX5nnOm9HM
Hologram Pyramid Movie Buddha 3D low
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1PfTBLUKbLo&t=138s
How to create holographic show | [DIY] | Home made Hologram | Silapathikaram hologram
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ikuSPBZjkhw
10 Most Advanced HologramS that are INSANE!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YtoJaythT_c
Amazing Hologram Technology Is Transforming Our World 2017 Part 2

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7D Hologram Technology Amazing Show in Dubai !!

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7D Hologram Technology Amazing Show in Dubai !!

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7D technology in Japan

https://www.youtube.com/user/audreyba…
instagram: https://www.instagram.com/liiicorice/

Art and Brushes: Audrey Bagley

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v0ibqyMXyLw
How to create animated GIFs | Adobe Creative Cloud
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Df7iS_chC7Q
Simple Wings GIF Animation - Photoshop Tutorial

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nw8SrMy9wp8
The Animated Gif Song

https://mail.yahoo.com/d/folders/1/messages/49261
I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved: B. R. Ambedkar

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/…/articles…/61852629.cms
It’s rather interesting to note that the author of the comment at sl.
no. III. below considers defanging of the Atrocities Act as a step
towards a casteless society.

http://indianexpress.com/…/after-mps-3-ministers-call-for-…/

After MPs, 3 Ministers call for review petition against Supreme Court order on SC/ST atrocities Act

https://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/…/sc-bats-for-ca…/

SC Bats For Casteless Society: Unfortunately there are few political takers

2570 Sat 24 Mar 2018 LESSON

28 Classical Frisian

28 Klassike Frysk

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/

Buddha Vacana
- De wurden fan ‘e Buddha -
Klassike buddhisme (learingen fan ‘e ferwachting mei bewustwêzen) hearre ta de wrâld, en elkenien hat eksklusive rjochten:

is de meast positive enerzjy fan ynformative en ûndersyksrjochte side,
dy’t de learingen fan ‘e Awakened One mei bewustwêzen de Buddha en op’ e
Techno-Politico-Socio-transformaasje en ekonomyske emansipaasjebeweging
útfolge, folge troch miljoenen minsken yn ‘e wrâld.

Ferjit
de krekte oersetting as lesio fan dizze universiteit yn ‘e memmetaal
nei dizze Google-oersetting https://translate.google.com en
propagatearjen rjochtet in Stream Enterer (Sottapanna) te wêzen en
Eternal Bliss as Final Goal te meitsjen. Analytyske Insight-Net - FREE Online Analytysk Insight-Net Tipiṭaka
Research & Practice Universiteit en relatearre Nijs fia
http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org yn 105 KLASSISCHE LANGUES

Buddha Vacana
- De wurden fan ‘e Buddha -
Lear Pali online fergees en de maklike manier.

Dizze
webside is wijd oan dyjingen dy’t de wurden fan ‘e Buddha better
fersterke wolle troch de basis fan’ e Pali taal te learen, mar dy’t net
folle tiid hawwe foar dat. It
idee is dat as har doel krekt is om te aktivearjen om de Pali teksten
te lêzen en in geweldich gefoel fan har te begripen, sels as dat begrip
net alle minuten details fan grammatikale regels beslút, se moatte net
echt folle fertsjinje tiid krijt mei in ûntwerpende learjen fan ‘e tydlike grammatikale
teory mei soksoarte dingen as in protte oanfollingen en konjugaasjes.

Yn
dat gefal is it genôch om har te beheinen om gewoan de betsjutting fan
‘e wichtichste Pali-wurden te learen, om’t de werhelle ûnderfining fan
lêzen in empirysk en yntuitysk begryp fan’ e meast foarkommende
sinstrukturen foarmet. Se wurde sa ynskeakele om autodidakte te wurden, de tiid, tiid, frekwinsje, ynhâld en djipte fan har eigen stúdzje te kiezen.

Har
ynsjenning fan ‘e Buddha Vacana sil folle prate wurde wurde, om’t se de
wurden en de wichtige formules dy’t yn’ e lear fan ‘e Buddha fûn binne,
learend en memorieare, troch wizen fan reguliere lêzing. Har learen en de ynspiraasje dy’t se krije, sille djipper ferheegje as
har opfettigens oan ‘e berjochten fan’ e Learaar ferbetterje sil.

Disclaimer: Dizze webside is makke troch in autodidakt en is bedoeld foar autodidakte. De
webmaster hat gjin offisjele Pali kursus folge en der is gjin claim dat
alle hjir presintearre ynformaasje is folslein fergees fan flater. Dejingen dy’t akademyske presidinsje winskje wolle sizze dat jo in formele Pali-kursus oanbelangje. As gefolch dat de lêzers gjin flater fine, sil de webmaster dankber
wêze as se it berjocht troch it berjocht neamd ûnder ‘Kontakt’.

Sutta Piṭaka -Digha Nikāya

DN 9 -
Poṭṭhapāda Sutta
{útskeakelje}
- De fragen fan Poṭṭhapāda -

Poṭṭhapāda freget ferskate fragen, dy’t de natuer fan Saññā opnimme.
Opmerking: gewoan teksten

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/suttapitaka.html
Sutta Piṭaka
- De kork fan discourses -
[sutta: diskusje]

De Sutta Piṭaka befettet de essinsje fan ‘e lear fan’ e Buddha oer de Dhamma. It befettet mear as tsientûzen sutta. It is ferdield yn fiif kolleksjes, neamd Nikāyas.

Dīgha Nikāya
    [dīgha: lang] De Dīgha Nikāya sammelt 34 fan ‘e langste diskusjes dy’t de Buddha jûn wurde. Der binne ferskate hintsjes dy’t in protte fan harren lette
oanfollingen binne oan ‘e oarspronklike korpus en fan betroubere
echtheid.
Majjhima Nikāya
    [majjhima: medium] De Majjhima Nikāya sammelt 152 diskusjes fan ‘e Buddha fan lingte fan lingte, omgean mei ferskate saken.
Saṃyutta Nikāya
    [Samuutta: groep] De Saṃyutta Nikāya sammelt de sutta neffens har ûnderwerp yn 56 sub-groepen neamd saṃyuttas. It befettet mear as trije tûzen diskusjes fan variable fariant, mar oer it generaal relatyf koarte.
Aṅguttara Nikāya
    [aṅg: factor | uttara:
additionnal] De Aṅguttara Nikāya wurdt ûnderferdield yn elf sub-groepen
neamd nipātas, elk fan har sammelt diskusjes besteande út opnames fan
ien ekstra faktor tsjin dy fan ‘e presidint nipāta. It befettet tûzenen suttas dy’t allinich koart binne.
Khuddaka Nikāya
    [khuddha:
koarte, lytse] De Khuddhaka Nikaya koarte teksten en wurdt beskôge as
twa komposysjes: Dhammapada, Udāna, Itivuttaka, Sutta Nipāta,
Theragāthā-Therīgāthā en Jātaka foarmje de âlde straten, wylst oare
boeken lette oanfollingen binne en har echtheid is djoerder.

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/formulae.html

Beam

Pali Formulas

De
werjefte fan dit wurk is basearre op dat de passaazjes fan ‘e sutta’s
dy’t it meast foarkomme wurde troch de Bouddha yn alle fjouwer Nikayas,
kinne nommen wurde as oanwize wat er beskôge as it wurdichste fan belang
fan syn learen , en tagelyk as wat mei de measte prestaasjes syn eigentlike wurden jout. Acht fan harren wurde útsteld yn ‘e Gaṇaka-Moggallāna Sutta (MN 107) en beskreaun as Sekha Paṭipadā of Pa

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/formulae.html

Pali Formulas

Sekha Paṭipadā - De paad foar ien ûnder trening

Tolve formules dy’t stap foar stap definiearje de wichtige praktiken dy’t presidearre binne troch de Buddha. It is fan grûnweardich belang foar elkenien dy’t sukses ferwidere wol,
om’t it de ynstruksjes befettet dy’t de meditator ynskeakelje om de
ûnbedoelde betingsten foar in effisjinte praktyk op te stellen.

Ānāpānassati - Bewissing fan ‘e Breath
    De praktyk fan ānāpānassati wurdt sterk bemoedigje troch de Bouddha
foar alle soarten folwoekse doelen en hjir kinne jo krekt krekt de
ynstruksjes jaan dy’t hy jout.
Anussati - The Recollections
    Hjirby hawwe wy de standerdisearring fan ‘e Buddha (≈140 byt.), De Dhamma (≈ 90 ok.) En de Sangha (45).
Appamāṇā Cetovimutti - De grenzeless befrijers fan ‘e geast
    De Buddha lûkt faak de praktyk fan ‘e fjouwer appamāṇā cetovimutti,
dy’t bekend binne foar it bringen fan beskerming tsjin gefaren en foar
in wei dy’t nei Brahmaloka leit.
Arahatta - Arahantskip
    Dit is de stockfoarm wêrby’t it berikken fan arahantsjeit yn ‘e suttes beskreaun wurdt.
Ariya Sīlakkhandha - De aadlike aggregaat fan ‘e deugd
    Ferskate regels dy’t folge wurde troch bhikkhus.
Arūpajjhānā - The Formless Jhānas
    Hjir binne de stockfoarmen dy’t de absorptaasjes fan samādhi beskôgje,
fierder de fjirde jhāna, dy’t yn ‘e lette Pali-litteratuer neamd wurde
as arūpajjhānas.
Āsavānaṃ Khayañāṇa - Kenntnis fan it ferneatigjen fan ‘e āavavas
    Kennis fan ‘e ferneatiging fan’ e saavas: arahantship.
Bhojane Mattaññutā - Moderaasje yn iten
    Moderaasje yn iten: it witten fan it goede bedrach om te iten.
Cattāro Jhānā - De fjouwer jānas
    De fjouwer jānas: hawwe in noflike beweegjen.
Indriyesu Guttadvāratā - Surveillance by de yntree fan sensuele fakulteiten
    Wacht by de yngong fan sinnen fakulteiten: feiligens.
Jāgariyaṃ Anuyoga - Dediksje nei wekkerheid
    Dediksje nei wekkerens: dei en nacht.
Kammassakomhi - ik bin myn eigen kamma
    Dizze formule ferklearret ien fan ‘e stiftingsstiennen fan it
ûnderwiis fan Buddha: in subjektive ferzje fan’ e wet fan oarsaak en
effekt.
Nīvaraṇānaṃ Pahāna - Ferwidering fan hinderingen
    Ferwidering fan ‘e hinderpunten: it oerwinnen fan it fersterkjen fan mentale steaten.
Pabbajjā - It útgean
    It útgean: hoe’t men beslút om de wrâld te ûntkommen.
Pubbenivāsānussatiñāṇa - Kenntnis fan ‘e ferjilding fan eardere wenplakken
    Kennis fan ‘e ferwachting fan eardere libbestellen: it oantinken fan in ferline libben.
Satipaṭṭhāna - Fermelding fan bewustwêzen
    Dit binne de formulaten dêr’t de Buddha yn koarte definiearret wat de fjouwer satipaṭṭhānas binne (≈33 f.).
Satisampajañña - Mindfulness en grif begryp
    Mempealens en grûnbegryp: in ûnferbrutsen praktyk.
Satta saddhammā - Sân goede kwaliteiten
    Sân fundamentale kwaliteiten dy’t troch de trainee behearske wurde moatte om suksesfol te wurden. Fjouwer fan dy kwaliteiten ferskine ek ûnder de fiif geastige yndrijeazjes en de fiif balas.
Sattānaṃ Cutūpapātañāṇa - Kenntnis fan ‘e opnij fan’ e opnijbeien
    Kennis fan ‘e opnij fan’ e opnijbeien.
Sīlasampatti - Utfiering yn ‘e deugd
    Tsjinst yn deugd: in soarchfâldich observaasje fan ‘e Pātimokkha-regels.
Vivitta Senāsanena Bhajana - Reservearje nei ôfsletten wenningen
    De kar foar in goede plak en de fêststelling fan ‘e goede fysike en
mentale posysje is in oare sinne-betingst fan suksesfolle praktyk.
Bodhi leaf

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/patimokkha.html

Pātimokkha
- De rjochtlinen fan Bhikkhu -

Dizze binne de 227 rjochtlinen dy’t elke bhikkhu mei hert leare moatte yn Pali taal om har te fertsjinjen. Hjir sil in semantyske analyze fan elke rjochtlinen (hopefully) oanbean wurde.

Pārājika 1
As
alle bhikkhu - dielnimme oan de oplieding en leefberens fan ‘e
bhikkhus, sûnder dat de trening wegere hat, sûnder dat syn swakheit
ferklearre - yn’ t seksueel ferbân, sels mei in froulik dier, ferslein
en net mear yn oansluting.

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/patimokkha/par1.html
Pārājika 1

Se hawwe in soad fan ‘e saken dy’t se saken hawwe fan’ e saken fan ‘e
saken dy’t se hawwe, te fertsjinjen en te fertsjinjen fan’ e kunde fan
‘e kwea-ôfdieling fan’ e kunde fan ‘e kwea-ôfdieling.

As alle bhikkhu - dielnimme oan de oplieding en leefberens fan ‘e
bhikkhus, sûnder dat de trening wegere hat, sûnder dat syn swakheit
ferklearre - yn’ t seksueel ferbân, sels mei in froulik dier, ferslein
en net mear yn oansluting.

yo pana bhikkhu Wolle alle bhikkhu
bhikkhūnaṃ sikkhā · s · ājīva · samāpanno dielnimme oan de oplieding en libbensjier fan ‘e bhikkhus,
sikkhaṃ a · paccakkhāya sûnder de training,
du · b · balyaṃ an · āvi · katvā, sûnder dat syn swakke ferklearre
methunāk dhammaṃ paṭiseveyya besykje yn seksuele oarloch,
antamaso tiracchāna · gatāya · pi, sels mei in froulik dier,
pārājiko hoti a · saṃvāso. hy is ferslein en net langer yn oansluting.

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/download.html

Website download

Download de side (ferzje fan January 2013):

Klik hjir

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/contact.html

Beam
Kontakt

Foar elke remark, suggestje, fraach:

Ferwiderje jo gjin flater, skiedkundiging, brutsen link, lege ynfoemulaasje · blaas ensafuorthinne. De webmaster sil dankber wêze.

Easy access:

Dīgha Nikāya

Majjhima Nikāya

Saṃyutta Nikāya

Aṅguttara Nikāya

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/digha.html
Beam
Dīgha Nikāya
- De lange diskusjes -
[dīgha: lang]

De Dīgha Nikāya sammelet 34 fan ‘e langste diskusjes dy’t leauwe wurde troch de Buddha.

Poṭṭhapāda Sutta (DN 9) (útsprekke) - fergrutte oersetting
    Poṭṭhapāda freget ferskate fragen, dy’t de natuer fan Saññā opnimme.
Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (DN 16) {útsetten} - wurd troch wurd
    Dizze sutta sammele ferskillende ynstruksjes dy’t de Buddha joegen fan
syn followers nei syn fuortgong, dat is hjoed in tige wichtige ynset
foar ús.
Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (DN 22) - wurd troch wurd
    Dizze sutta wurdt algemien beskôge as in fundamentale referinsje foar meditaasjepraktyk.

—— oooOooo ——
http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/majjhima.html
Majjhima Nikāya
- De diskusjes fan middellange lingte -
[Majjhima: medium]

De Majjhima Nikāya sammelt 152 diskurses fan ‘e Buddha fan tuskentiid, mei ferskate saken.

Sabbāsava Sutta (MN 2) - fergrutte oersetting
    Hiel nijsgjirrige sutta, wêrby’t de ferskillende wizen dêr’t de asaavas, fermentearjende defileminten fan ‘e tin, útinoar wurde.
Bhayabherava Sutta (MN 4) - fergrutte oersetting
    Wat soe it nimme om te wenjen yn ‘e iensumens yn’ e woestyn, folslein frij fan eang? De Buddha ferklearret.
Vattha Sutta (MN 7) (ekstrapt) - fergrutte oersetting
    Wy fine hjir in earder standert list fan sechstjin defileminten
(upakkilesa) fan ‘e geast, en in ferklearring fan in meganisme wêrby’t
men dizze’ befestige fertrouwens ‘yn’ e Buddha, de Dhamma en de Sangha
binne dy’t faktors binne foar streaming.
Mahādukkhakkhandha Sutta (MN 13) - fergrutte oersetting
    Op
de assāda (allure), ādīnava (neistlizzend) en nissaraṇa (emansipaasje)
fan kama (sinnlikens), rūpa (foarm) en vedanā (gefoelens). In protte tige nuttige mate om te oertsjûgjen.
Cūḷahatthipadopama Sutta (MN 27) - fergrutte oersetting
    De Buddha ferklearret hoe’t it feit dat hy in feilige wêzen is moat op
it leauwe of as in konklúzje oant in beskate toaniel berikt wurde, en
dat alle bewiis fan sa’n kennis sûnder dat realisaasje net wurdich is.
Mahāvedalla Sutta (MN 43) {ekerpt} - wurd troch wurd
    Sāriputta antwurde ferskate nijsgjirrige fragen dy’t troch āyasmā
Mahākoṭṭhika frege, en yn dizze eksperzje ferklearre hy dat Vedanā,
Saññā en Viņāāṇa net dúdlik delineare, mar djip ynwêzich binne.
Cūḷavedalla Sutta (MN 44) {ekerpt} - fergrutte oersetting
    De bhikkhuni Dhammadinnā antwurde in searje interessante fragen dy’t troch Visākha frege. Under oare sjogge se de 20-fêste definysje fan sakkāyadiṭṭhi.
Sekha Sutta (MN 53) - fergrutte oersetting
    De Buddha freget om Ānanda om de Sekha Paṭipadā te ûntwikkeljen,
wêrtroch’t hy in ferrassende ferzje jout, dêr’t Satisampajañña en
Nīvaraṇānaṃ Pahāna nijsgjirrich ferfange troch in searje fan ‘e sân’
goede kwaliteiten ‘, en dat is yllustrearre troch in fertelle simile.
Potaliya Sutta (MN 54) - fergrutte oersetting
    In searje fan sân standert simys om de tekoarten en dingen te ferklearjen fan it jaan yn sinensualiteit.
Bahuvedanīya Sutta (MN 59) {excerpt} - wurd troch wurd
    Yn dizze koarte útdiel beskiedt de Buddha de fiif kampanjes en makket in wichtige ferliking mei in oare soarte fan wille.
Kīṭāgiri Sutta (MN 70) (ekstrapt) - fergrutte oersetting
    Dizze sutta befettet in definysje fan dhammānusārī en saddhānusārī.

Bāhitikā Sutta (MN 88) {ekerpt} - fergrutte oersetting
    De kening Pasenadi fan Kosala is earm om te begripen wat oan te rieden
is of net troch wiidweidige asetetyske en brahmans, en freget in rige
fragen nei Ānanda dy’t ús in bettere skaaimerk meitsje fan ‘e
betsjutting fan’ e wurden kusala (goed) en akusala (unwholesome).
Ānāpānassati Sutta (MN 118) - wurd troch wurd
    De ferneamde sutta oer de praktyk fan anānpānassati, en hoe’t it liedt
ta de praktyk fan ‘e fjouwer satipaṭṭhānas en subsidint oan de
ferfolling fan’ e sân bojjhaṅgas.
Saqāyatanavibhaṅga Sutta (MN 137) (ekstrapt) - fergrutte oersetting
    Yn dizze djippe en tige nijsgjirrige sutta definieart de Buddha ûnder
oaren wat de ûndersiken fan ‘e noflike, ûngeunstige en neutrale
geastlike gefoelens binne en ek de útdrukking fûn yn’ e standert
beskriuwing fan ‘e Buddha:’ anuttaro purisadammasārathī ‘.
Indriyabhāvanā Sutta (MN 152) - wurd troch wurd
    Dizze sutta biedt trije oanwêzingen oan ‘e praktyk fan sintefêsting,
dy’t ekstra ynstruksjes befetsje dy’t de formulas fan Indriyesu
Guttadvāratā befetsje.

—— oooOooo ——
http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/samyutta.html

Beam
Saṃyutta Nikāya
- De klassisearre discourses -
[saṃyutta: groep]

De discourses fan ‘e Saṃyutta Nikāya binne ferdield neffens harren tema yn 56 saïyuttas, dy’t sels yn fiif faggas groeid binne.

Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 12.2) - wurd troch wurd
    In detaillearre ferklearring fan paṭicca samuppāda, mei in definysje fan elk fan ‘e tolve keppelings.
Cetanā Sutta (SN 12.38) - fergrutte oersetting
    Hjir beskriuwt de Buddha hoe’t cetanā, mei technyk en anusaya, as basis foar viññāṇa hannelje.
Upādāna Sutta (SN 12.52) - fergrutte oersetting
    Dit is in tige oplevere learing, wêrtroch’t it psychologyske meganisme
yn ‘e wille jout om te freegjen en te ferklearjen hoe’t it kin maklik
ferfongen wurde troch gesellige oertsjûgingen om it te ferwiderjen.
Puttamaṃsūpama Sutta (SN 12.63) - fergrutte oersetting
    De Buddha biedt hjir fjouwer yndrukearjende en ynspirearjende similen om te ferklearjen hoe’t de fjouwer āhāras wurde beskôge.
Sanidāna Sutta (SN 14.12) - fergrutte oersetting
    In
prachtige ferklearring fan hoe’t wierskynsels yn aksjes feroarsake
wurde, fierder ferheven troch de simile fan ‘e lizzende fjoer. Bliuw tûk achtsinnich om ûnwierskynlike tinzen te ûntbinen!
Āṇi Sutta (SN 20.7) - wurd troch wurd
    In
tige wichtich ding wurdt ús troch de Buddha oan ‘t herinnerden: foar ús
eigen foardiel lykas ek foar de befeiliging fan’ e generaasjes dy’t
noch komme, moatte wy de measte belang wêze foar syn eigen echte wurden,
en net sa folle wa’t oars as hjoeddedei noadich is hat yn it ferline in foarsitter dien om in krekte (Dhamma) learkrêft te wêzen.
Samādhi Sutta (SN 22.5) - wurd troch wurd
    De Buddha ûnderskiedt syn followers om konsintraasje te ûntwikkeljen
sadat se ynsjoch yn ‘e ûntstean en ferdwine fan’ e fiif aggregaten,
wêrnei’t hy definiearret wat hy betsjut troch it ûntstean en ferlofjen
fan ‘e aggregaten, yn betingst fan ôfhinklike ôfwizing.
Paṭisallāṇa Sutta (SN 22.6) - sûnder oersetting
    De Buddha ûnderskiedt syn folgelingen om seklúzje te praktisearjen
sadat se ynsjoch yn ‘e ûntstean en ferlitte fan’ e fiif aggregaten,
wêrnei’t hy definiearret wat hy betsjut troch it ûntstean en ferlofjen
fan ‘e aggregaten, yn betingst fan ôfhinklike ôfwizing.
Upādāparitassanā Sutta (SN 22.8) - wurd troch wurd
    De opkommende en beweeching fan it lijen sil plakfine yn ‘e fiif aggregaten.
Nandikkhaya Sutta (SN 22.51) - wurd troch wurd
    Hoe kin it ferneatigjen fan genugens operearje.
Anattalakkhana Sutta (SN 22.59) - wurd troch wurd
    Yn dizze tige ferneamde sutta útstrekt de Buddha foar it earst syn learen oer anatta.
Khajjanīya Sutta (SN 22.79) (útskeakelje) - wurd troch wurd
    Dizze sutta jout in suksesfolle definysje fan ‘e fiif khandhas.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 29.1) - fergrutte oersetting
    De ferskate soarten nazas.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 30,1) - fergrutte oersetting
    De ferskate soarten supaṇṇas (aka garudas).
Suddhika Sutta (SN 31,1) - fergrutte oersetting
    De ferskate soarten fan gandhabba devas.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 32.1) - fergrutte oersetting
    De ferskate soarten wolken devas.
Samāpattimūlakaṭhiti Sutta (SN 34.11) - fergrutte oersetting
    Opkomst fan konsintraasje en behâld fan konsintraasje.
Pubbesambodha Sutta (SN 35,13) - wurd troch wurd
    De Buddha definiearret wat hy betsjut troch ferlies, minne en
emansipaasje yn ‘e gefallen fan’ e ynterne betsjutting fan ‘e spoaren,
en beslút dan dat syn wekker neat mear is as minder as begryp se.
Abhinanda Sutta (SN 35.20) - wurd troch wurd
    Der is gjin ûntploaiïng foar wa’t fertsjinwurdiget yn sintike objekten.
Migajāla Sutta (SN 35.46) - fergrutte oersetting
    Wêrom is echte iensumens sa hurd te finen? De Buddha ferklearret wêrom, sûnder wêr’t jo hinnegean, binne jo meast ferneamde begjinners altyd tagelyk.
Avijjāpahāna Sutta (SN 35.53) - wurd troch wurd
    In hiel ienfâldich diskusje, dochs
Sabbupādānapariñņā Sutta (SN 35.60) - wurd troch wurd
    De Buddha, wylst it folsleine begryp fan alle oanhingjes útwreidet, in
djippe en dochs tige dúdlike ferklearring jout: kontakt komt op basis
fan trije ferskynsels.
Migajāla Sutta Sutta (SN 35.64) {útsprutsen} - wurd troch wurd
    Guon
neophyten (en wy kinne faaks wol ûnder har rekkenje) wolris leauwe dat
it mooglik is yn ‘e sensuele plezier te genietsjen, sûnder oan te lûken
of lijen. De Buddha leart Migajāla dat dit ûnjildich ûnmooglik is.
Adantāgutta Sutta (SN 35.94) - wurd troch wurd
    Hjir
is ien fan dy advisearingen dy’t sa maklik te begripen binne mei de
yntellekt, mar sa swier om te begripen op djipper nivo, om’t ús
ferkearde tinzen hieltyd ynterfalle yn it proses. Dêrom moatte wy it faaks foarkomme, hoewol dat it liket te learen foar guon.
Pamādavihārī Sutta (SN 35.97) - wurd troch wurd
    Wat makket it ferskil tusken ien dy’t mei negligens libbet en ien dy’t mei wachtsjen libbet.
Sakkapañhā Sutta Sutta (SN 35.118) - wurd troch wurd
    De Buddha jout in earder ienfâldige antwurd op ‘e fraach fan Sakka:
wat is de reden wêrom’t guon minsken it einlingsdoer helje, wylst oaren
net binne?
Rūpārāma Sutta (SN 35.137) - wurd troch wurd
    De Buddha ferklearret foar ús nochris, yn noch in oare manier, de oarsaak en it bewarjen fan it lijen. It bart krekt yn ‘e midden fan wat wy deis hâlde en de hiele nacht hâlde.
Aniccanibbānasappāya Sutta (SN 35.147) - wurd troch wurd
    Hjir binne hardcore vipassanā ynstruksjes dy’t behannele wurde mei de
wjerssetting fan ymmigraasje foar avansearre meditators dy’t freegje nei
it berikken fan Nibbāna.
Ajjhattānattahetu Sutta (SN 35.142) - wurd troch wurd
    Hoe’t ûndersiket de oarsaken foar it ûntstean fan ‘e
betsjuttingsorganen, dêr’t it karakterisearjen fan nuttel makliker te
begripen kin, in transfer fan dat begryp oan har saak mooglik makket.
Samudda Sutta (SN 35.229) - fergrutte oersetting
    Wat de oseaan yn ‘e disipline fan’ e foarname is. Tink derom net te sinkjen yn it!
Pahāna Sutta (SN 36.3) - fergrutte oersetting
    De relaasje tusken de trije soarten fan vedana en trije fan ‘e anusayas.
Daṭṭhabba Sutta (SN 36,5) - fergrutte oersetting
    Hoe’t de trije soarten fan vedanā (gefoelens) te sjen binne.
Salla Sutta (SN 36.6) - fergrutte oersetting
    As
se troch it pylk fan ‘e lichaamlike pine sketten, makket in ûnsichtige
persoan minder kwea troch it pylken fan’ e geastlike bangens oan ‘t
boppe, krekt as as hy troch twa pylken skoattele is. In hurde man fielt allinich de sting fan ien pylk.
Anicca Sutta (SN 36,9) - fergrutte oersetting
    Sân eigenskippen fan vedanā (gefoelens), dy’t ek binne tapastlik foar
de oare fjouwer khandhas (SN 22.21) en elke fan de tolve keppelings fan
paṭicca · samuppāda (SN 12.20).
Phassamūlaka Sutta (SN 36.10) - wurd troch wurd
    De trije typen fan gefoelens wurde root yn trije soarten kontakten.
Aṭṭhasata Sutta (SN 36.22) - fergrutte oersetting
    De Buddha ûntwikkelet yn sân ferskillende wizen yn ‘e fingers,
analysearret se yn twa, trije, fiif, seis, achttjin, tritich seis of
hûndert acht kategoryen.
Nirāmisa Sutta (SN 36.31) {útsetten} - wurd troch wurd
    Wy kinne hjir begripe dat pīti, hoewol’t faaks as bojjhaṅga neamd wurdt, ek soms akusala wêze kin. Dizze passaazje befettet ek in definysje fan ‘e fiif kampanjes.
Dhammavādīpañhā Sutta (SN 38.3) - fergrutte oersetting
    Wa praat de Dhamma yn ‘e wrâld (dhamma · vādī)? Wa praat goed (su · p · paṭipanna)? Wa is farwol goed (su · gata)?
Dukkara Sutta (SN 39.16) - fergrutte oersetting
    Wat is dreech te dwaan yn dit Teaching and Discipline?
Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 45.8) - wurd troch wurd
    Hjir beskiedt de Buddha krekt elke faktor fan ‘e achtfoldige adelige paad.
Āgantuka Sutta (SN 45.159) - fersterke oersetting
    Hoe’t de Nobelpriis wurket mei de abhiññā foar ferskate dammammas as gasthûs dy’t ferskate soarten besikers besykje.
Kusala Sutta (SN 46.32) - wurd troch wurd
    Alles dat foardiel is yn ien ding ferienigje.
Āhāra Sutta (SN 46,51) - fergrutte oersetting
    De Buddha beskriuwt hoe’t wy “fiere” of “stjerre” kinne fan ‘e
hinderingen en de faktoaren fan ferljochting neffens hoe’t wy ús
oandacht tapasse.
Saṅgārava Sutta (SN 46.55) {ekerpt} - fergrutte oersetting
    In prachtige rige fan similen om te ferklearjen hoe’t de fiif
nīvaraṇas (hinderingen) de reinheid fan ‘e geast en har fermogen hawwe
om de realiteit te begripen as it is.
Sati Sutta (SN 47.35) - wurd troch wurd
    Yn dizze sutta is de Buddha oan ‘e bhikkhus oan dat se satos en sampajānos wurde, en definieare dizze twa terminen.
Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 47.40) - wurd troch wurd
    De satipaṭṭhānas learde koart.
Daṭṭhabba Sutta (SN 48.8) - fergrutte oersetting
    Elk fan ‘e fiif geastlike yndriëas wurdt sein dat se yn in fjouwerfâldige dhamma sjoen wurde.
Saṃkhitta Sutta (SN 48.14) - fergrutte oersetting
    It befoarderjen fan har is alles wat wy dwaan moatte, en dit is it maat fan ús befrijing.
Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 48.38) - fergrutte oersetting
    Hjir beskiedt de Buddha de fiif sensitive yndrienen.
Uppaṭipāṭika Sutta (SN 48,40)

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http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/anguttara.html
Aṅguttara Nikāya
- De diskusjes fan ien ekstra faktor -
[aṅg: factor | uttara: additional]

De Aṅguttara Nikāya befettet tûzenen koarte diskusjes, dy’t de eigendom hawwe as struktueren strukturearre. It
is ferdield yn elke ôfdielings, de earste omset mei ferzjes fan ien
item, de twadde mei dy fan twa punten ensfh. De Bouddha, dy’t nea fan
skriuwen gebrûk makke hat, frege syn harkers omtinken te wêzen en syn
ynstruksjes te memoriearjen. Om syn wurden sa maklik mooglik te meitsjen en dit memorisaasje te
fasilitearjen, joech hy faak syn learen yn ‘e foarm fan opkommingen.

Nipātas
1. Ekaka Nipāta 7. Sattaka Nipāta
2. Duka Nipāta 8. Aṭṭhaka Nipāta
3. Tika Nipāta 9. Navaka Nipāta
4. Catuka Nipāta 10. Dasaka Nipāta
5. Pañcaka Nipāta 11. Ekādasaka Nipāta
6. Chakka Nipāta

—— oooOooo ——
1. Ekaka Nipāta

Rūpādi Vagga (AN 1.1-10) - wurd troch wurd
    Der binne fiif soarten soarten ideeën dy’t de geast fan (meast) minske mear as elkenien oerwinne.
Nīvaraṇappahāna Vagga (AN 1.11-20) - wurd troch wurd
    De fiif dhammas dy’t de fiif hinderingen meast effisjearje, en de fiif meast effektive manieren om har te fersprieden.
Akammaniya Vagga (AN 1.21-30) - wurd troch wurd
    De geast kin ús minste fijân wêze of ús bêste freon.
Adanta Vagga (AN 1.31-40) - fergrutte oersetting
    De geast kin ús minste fijân wêze of ús bêste freon.

Udakarahaka Suttas (AN 1.45 & 46) - fergrutte oersetting
    It ferskil tusken in dúdlike geast en in smakke ien.
Mudu Sutta (AN 1.47) - fergrutte oersetting
    In simele foar in geast dy’t liedt.
Lahuparivatta Sutta (AN 1.48) - fergrutte oersetting
    De Buddha, normaal sa aspekt op it sykjen fan similen, is hjir by in ferlies.
Accharāsaṅghāta Peyyāla (AN 1.53-55) - wurd troch wurd
    It praktisearjen fan goede wil makket ien wurdich foar kado.
Kusala Suttas (AN 1.56-73) - wurd troch wurd
    Wat produsearret en wat elkoar en sûnder willekeurige steaten elimint.
Pamāda Suttas (AN 1.58-59) - fergrutte oersetting
    Nimmen is sa ûnbedoeld as dit.
Pamādādi Vagga (AN 1.81-97) - wurd troch wurd
    De Buddha warskôget ús wer tsjin heulasens.
Kāyagatāsati Vagga (AN 1.563-574) {útsetten} - fergrutte oersetting
    De Buddha praat yn hege lof fan ‘e mindfulness oan it lichem.

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2. Duka Nipāta

Appaṭivāna Sutta (AN 2,5) - fergrutte oersetting
    Hoe’t wy ús draaie moatte as wy wekker komme wolle.
Cariya Sutta (AN 2.9) - fergrutte oersetting
    Wat
is it, nei alle gedachten, dat harmony, húshâlding, earlikens,
bruorskip yn in wurd frede biedt binnen in beskate maatskippij? De Buddha ferklearret hjir wat de twa beskermers fan ‘e wrâld binne.
Ekaṃsena Sutta (AN 2.18) - fergrutte oersetting
    Hjir is ien ding dat de Buddha kategorisch ferklearret.
Vijjābhāgiya Sutta (AN 2.32) - wurd troch wurd
    Hjir fertelt de Buddha Samatha mei rāga en cetovimutti, en Vipassana mei avijjā en pañņāvimutti.

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3. Tika Nipāta

Kesamutti [aka Kālāmā] Sutta (AN 3.66) - wurd troch wurd
    Yn dizze ferneamde sutta is de Buddha ús oan dat wy allinich ús eigen
direkte ûnderfining fan ‘e realiteit fertrouwe, net wat troch oaren
ferklearre wurdt, sels as se ús’ ferearber learaar ‘wêze.
Sāḷha Sutta (AN 3.67) - fergrutte oersetting
    De advizen dy’t hjir jûn wurde, binne hiel ferlykber mei dat jild foar de Kalama’s.
Aññatitthiya Sutta (AN 3.69) - fergrutte oersetting
    De trije woartels fan ‘e unwholesome binne ferklearre mei har
respektearjende karakteristyk, de oarsaak fan har ûntstean en de manier
om har bewarjen te bringen.
Uposatha Sutta (AN 3.71) - fergrutte oersetting
    Yn dizze sutta definieart de Buddha hoe’t leie minsken Uposatha dwaan moatte en beskriuwt de ferskate soarten devas.
Sīlabbata Sutta (AN 3.79) - fergrutte oersetting
    Ānanda ferklearret troch hokker ienfâldige kriteria-riten en rituelen as befoardere wurde as net.
Samaṇa Sutta (AN 3.82) - fergrutte oersetting
    Hjir binne de trije asetetyske taken fan in asket.
Vajjiputta Sutta (AN 3.85) - fergrutte oersetting
    In beskate muonts kin net mei safolle regels trainje. De Buddha ferklearet him hoe’t hy sûnder harren kin, en it wurket goed.
Sikkhattaya Sutta (AN 3.90) - wurd troch wurd
    De Buddha befettet de trije treningen, d.h. adhisīlasikkhā, adhicittasikkhā en adhipañāsikkhā.
Accàyika Sutta (AN 3.93) - fergrutte oersetting
    Trije urginte taken fan in asetsje dy’t as trije driuwende taken fan in boer binne.
Sikkhattaya Sutta (AN 3.91) - wurd troch wurd
    Hjir biedt de Buddha in alternatyf definysje fan adhipaññāsikkhā.
Paṃsudhovaka Sutta (AN 3.102) - inkele ynformaasje · blasen
    Yn dizze sutta fergelike de Buddha it ferwiderjen fan mentale ûnreplikingen troch de praktyk nei it wurk fan in goudsmid. It is benammen nijsgjirrich, om’t it in stadige eksposysje fan ‘e
ûnreplike punten biedt, moat men mei de praktyk behannelje, dy’t in
brûkbere referinsje jout.
Nimitta Sutta (AN 3.103) - in pear ynfoen blasen
    Binne jo yn ‘e meditaasjepraktyk jo ferdwûn of jo heulendal rêde? Dit
is in tige nuttige diskusje foar de meditaasjes dy’t de twa
oerienkommende geastlike fakulteiten fan ynspanning en konsintraasje
lykwols te kombinearje mei technyk. In protte fan ús soenen geweldich profitearje fan it tapassen fan dizze ynstruksjes.
Ruṇṇa Sutta (AN 3.108) - wurd troch wurd
    Hjir beskriuwt de Buddha wat sjongt en dûnsjen yn ‘e disipline fan’ e
aadlike, en jout syn ynstrunksje oer it laitsjen en it luljen.
Atitti Sutta (AN 3.109) - fergrutte oersetting
    Trije ferkearde dingen, wêrfan’t in protte lijen binne, dat kin nea sêdens bringe.
Nidāna Sutta (AN 3.112) - fergrutte oersetting
    Seis oarsaken, trije soartgelikense en trije ûnwittend, oan ‘e ûntstean fan kamma.
Kammapatha Sutta (AN 3.164) - wurd troch wurd
    It is hjirneist bewust dat de werjefte neffens hokker neat oars is as net-fegetarysk is ferkeard.

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4. Catukka Nipāta

Yoga Sutta (AN 4.10) - fergrutte oersetting
    Wat de Buddha betsjut as hy oer joga en yogakkhema praat (rêst út ‘e jok).
Padhāna Sutta (AN 4.13) - wurd troch wurd
    Yn dizze sutta jout de Buddha in definysje fan ‘e sammappadhānas.
Aparihāniya Sutta (AN 4.37) - fergrutte oersetting
    Fjouwer ienfâldige praktiken dy’t ien ûnfoldwaan meitsje fan ôfslach, krekt yn ‘e oanwêzigens fan Nibbāna.
Aparihāniya Sutta (AN 4.37) - fergrutte oersetting
    Fjouwer ienfâldige praktiken dy’t ien ûnfoldwaan meitsje fan ôfslach, krekt yn ‘e oanwêzigens fan Nibbāna.
Samādhibhāvanā Sutta (AN 4.41) - wurd troch wurd
    De fjouwer soarten konsintraasjes dy’t de Buddha oanbelanget. It is fanselssprekkend dat gjin dúdlike ûnderskied makke wurdt tusken samādhi en paññā.
Vipallāsa Sutta (AN 4.49) - wurd troch wurd
    Yn dizze sutta beskriuwt de Buddha de fjouwerfâldige feroardering fan sañà, citta en diṭṭhi.
Appamāda Sutta (AN 4.116) - ienfâldige oersetting
    Fjouwer eksimplaren wêr ‘t men mei assiduiteit te behanneljen.
Ārakkha Sutta (AN 4.117) - ienfâldige oersetting
    Fjouwer dingen moatte mei assiduity ûndernommen wurde, tûkens en beskermje de geast.
Mettā Sutta (AN 4.125) - fergrutte oersetting
    Hjir beskriuwt de Buddha hokker soarte fan werombet, ien dy’t de
fjouwer Brahmaviharas mei in soad praktisearret, en de grutte foardiel
fan syn learling.
Asubha Sutta (AN 4.163) - fergrutte oersetting
    De fjouwer manieren fan it praktysjen, neffens de soarte fan praktyk
keazen en de yntensiteit of swakke fan krêft en geastlike fyntens.
Abhiññā Sutta (AN 4.254) - sûnder oersetting
    Hoe’t de Nobelpriis wurket mei de abhiññā foar ferskate dammammas as gasthûs dy’t ferskate soarten besikers besykje.
Araña Sutta (AN 4.262) - fergrutte oersetting
    Hokker persoan is passend yn ‘e woestyn te libjen?

—— oooOooo ——

5. Pañcaka Nipāta

Vitthata Sutta (AN 5.2) - sûnder oersetting
    Hjir beskiedt de Buddha yn detail wat hy de fiif sekha balas neamt (strenghs fan ien yn trening). Dizze
sutta is maklik te begripen sûnder in parallele oersetting te
ferfangen, as jo ferwize nei de Satta saddhammā Formulas as suggereard
yn ‘t tekst. It Pali-Ingelsk Wurdboek is ek beskikber, allinich yn gefal.
Vitthata Sutta (AN 5.14) - wurd troch wurd
    Hjir binne de fiif balas definiearre.
Samādhi Sutta (AN 5.27) - fergrutte oersetting
    Fiif opliftende wittenskippen dy’t foarkomme oan ien dy’t de grenzeless konsintraasje praktisearret.
Akusalarāsi Sutta (AN 5.52) - fergrutte oersetting
    Rjochtich sprekke, wat moat ‘accumulation of demerit’ neamd wurde?
Abhiṇhapaccavekkhitabbaṭhāna Sutta (AN 5.57) {excerpt} - wurd troch wurd
    Hoe’t it eigen kamma beskôge wurdt.
Anāgatabhaya Sutta (AN 5.80) - fergrutte oersetting
    De Buddha ferwachtet de muontsen dat de praktyk fan Dhamma net foar in
lettertiid wêze moat, want der binne gjin garânsjes dat de takomst alle
kânsen foar praktyk leveret.
Sekha Sutta (AN 5.89) - sûnder oersetting
    De Buddha is oanwêzich fan fiif dingen dy’t de praktyk fersoargje,
dy’t foar elkenien dy’t yn ‘e oplieding foargeane wolle, hast sa
wichtich om te witten oer, yn te stean en yntegrearje yn ús leefstilen
as de kennis fan’ e fiif standert nīvaraṇas.
Sekha Sutta (AN 5.90) - fergrutte oersetting
    Fiif hâldingen dy’t liede ta de fersmoarging fan ‘e praktyk.
Sutadhara Sutta (AN 5.96) - fergrutte oersetting
    Fiif kwaliteiten binne de lieders dy’t net lang yn ‘e oandacht fan’ e atmosfearing praktisearje.
Katha Sutta (AN 5.97) - fergrutte oersetting
    Fiif kwaliteiten binne de lieders dy’t net lang yn ‘e oandacht fan’ e atmosfearing praktisearje.
Āraññaka Sutta (AN 5.98) - fergrutte oersetting
    Fiif kwaliteiten binne de lieders dy’t net lang yn ‘e oandacht fan’ e atmosfearing praktisearje.
Andhakavinda Sutta (AN 5.114) - fergrutte oersetting
    Fjirde dingen dy’t de Boeddha oanstelde syn nij alde muontsen te dwaan.
Samayavimutta Sutta (AN 5.149) - sûnder oersetting
    Fiif betingsten wêryn’t ien dy’t ‘gelegenheid befrijing’ krige hat, sil weromlûke.
Samayavimutta Sutta (AN 5.150) - sûnder oersetting
    In oar set fan fiif betingsten wêryn’t ien dy’t ‘gelegenheid befrijd’ krige hat, sil weromlûke.
Vaṇijjā Sutta (AN 5.177) - fergrutte oersetting
    De Buddha beskikt hjir fiif handels dy’t net trochfierd wurde troch syn leien followers, wêrûnder it bedriuw fan fleis.
Gihī Sutta (AN 5.179) - fergrutte oersetting
    Yn dizze sutta jout de Buddha in grutter prestaasje oer de manier
wêrop de fjouwer gewoane sotāpattiyaṅgas yninoarre wurde moatte om de
krekte betingsten foar sotāpatti te foarmjen.
Nissāraṇīya Sutta (AN 5.200) - fergrutte oersetting
    Dizze sutta fermindert fiif soarten nissaraenas.
Yāgu Sutta (AN 5.207) - fergrutte oersetting
    De Buddha jout fiif foardielen foar it iten fan rice-gruel.
Dantakaṭṭha Sutta (AN 5.208) - fergrutte oersetting
    De Buddha jout fiif redenen om in tosklean te brûken.
Gītassara Sutta (AN 5.209) - wurd troch wurd
    Dizze sutta is foar in grut part trochsichtich troch de ferskate
buddhistyske tradysjes: de Buddha ferklearret wêrom’t er de bhikkhus
gjin melodyske sjongen útfiere kin.
Muṭṭhassati Sutta (AN 5.210) - fergrutte oersetting
    De neidielen fan sliepe sliep sûnder goede sati en sampajañña, en de betreffende foardielen fan dat te dwaan mei har.
Duccarita Sutta (AN 5.245) - fergrutte oersetting
    In oare sutta oer de fiif gefaren fan duccarita en fiif foardielen fan sucarita.
Sivatika Sutta (AN 5.249) - fergrutte oersetting
    Fisje manieren wêryn in seldeweidige persoan ferlykber wêze kin mei in brede grûn wêr’t minsken deadlike lichems opstelle.
Puggalappasāda Sutta (AN 5.250) - fergrutte oersetting
    Hjir is in seldsume warskôging dy’t de Buddha jout oan de gefaren fan it fertrouwen yn elkenien.
Rāgassa abhiññāya Sutta (AN 5.303) - fergrutte oersetting
    Fiif dingen moatte praktisearre wurde foar it direkte kennis fan rāga.

—— oooOooo ——

6. Chakka Nipāta

Bhaddaka Sutta (AN 6.14) - in pear ynfoen fan blasen
    Sāriputta ferklearret wat de ferskillen tusken in bhikkhu makket, wa’t de dea ûntslach is en ien dy’t syn dea leuk is.
Anutappiya Sutta (AN 6.15) - in pear ynfoen
    Sāriputta ferklearret wat de ferskillen tusken in bhikkhu makket, wa’t de dea ferromming is en ien dy’t syn dea ferwiderlik is.
Maraṇassati Sutta (AN 6,20) - fergrutte oersetting
    Dizze sutta ferklearret yn detail hoe’t jo de mindfulness fan ‘e dea brûke.
Sāmaka Sutta (AN 6.21) - inkele ynformaasje · blasen
    Oanfrege troch de yntervinsje fan in deva, lit de Buddha de seis
agelike manieren sjen wêrby’t bhikkhus in kusala dhammas fersmyt.
Aparihāniya Sutta (AN 6.22) - in pear ynfoen
    Sixdammas binne ferbûn mei net-fersmoarging. In oar set fan tige brûkbere dhammas foar skerpe praktiken.
Himavanta Sutta (AN 6.24) - fergrutte oersetting
    Seis kwaliteiten waarden bedreaun wêrtroch’t in meditator rekke soe dat it Himalaya yn stikken brekt.
Anussatiṭṭhāna Sutta (AN 6,25) - fergrutte oersetting
    Dizze sutta definiearret wat binne de seis ûnderwerpen fan ‘e opleiding.
Sekha Sutta (AN 6.31) - sûnder oersetting
    De Buddha ferklearret hokker seis dhammas liede ta de fersmoarging fan in bhikkhu ûnder trening.
Nāgita Sutta (AN 6.42) - fergrutte oersetting
    Wylst yn in boskhúske wenje, sprekt de Buddha yn lof fan beskiedenens, tefredenens, ûnbidich, en ynsletten yn ‘e woestyn.
Dhammika Sutta (AN 6.54) - flakke teksten
    Yn dizze sutta wurdt it wurd tathāgata net brûkt om de Buddha oan te
tsjutten, mar yn ‘e mienskiplike sin, dat ús in bettere smaak fan syn
betsjutting makket.
Nibbedhika Sutta (AN 6.63) - flakte teksten
    Dizze sutta biedt in interessante systematyske analyze fan Kama, Vedan, Saññà, Āsava, Kamma en Dukkha. Elk fan dizze termen wurdt definiearre en wurdt dan beskreaun mei it patroan fan ‘e fjouwer ariya-sakakken.
Anavatthitā Sutta (AN 6.102) - fergrutte oersetting
    Seis beladen dy’t soargje moatte as motivearring foar it fêststellen fan ‘e wiskunde fan anicca.
Atammaya Sutta (AN 6.104) - fergrutte oersetting
    Seis beladen dy’t soargje moatte as motivaasje foar it fêststellen fan ‘e wittenskip fan anatta.
Assāda Sutta (AN 6.112) - fergrutte oersetting
    Hoe’t it sicht fan genôch te ferlosse, it sicht fan sels, en ferkearde werjefte yn algemien.
Dhammānupassī Sutta (AN 6.118) - wurd troch wurd
    It
is it wurdich te witten dat it berjocht opnommen is opnommen yn dizze
sutta: seis habiten sûnder ôf te jaan wêrtroch it net mooglik is de
satipaṭṭhānas goed te lezen. Fia wat wat reiniging kin hjir oan te rieden wêze.

—— oooOooo ——

7. Sattaka Nipāta

Anusaya Sutta (AN 7.11) - flakte teksten
    Hjir binne de sân anusayas opnommen.
Anusaya Sutta (AN 7.12) - fergrutte oersetting
    Op it ferlienen fan ‘e sân fan’ e anusaya (obsessions of latente tendenzen).
Saññā Sutta (AN 7.27) - fergrutte oersetting
    Sân perspektiven dy’t liede ta it langstme wolwêzen fan ‘e bhikkhus en foarkomme har ferfal.
Parihāni Sutta (AN 7.28) - fersterke oersetting
    Sân punten wêrtroch in bhikkhu yn trening kin of ferfallen of net.
Parihāni Sutta (AN 7.29) - fersterke oersetting
    Sân punten fan gedrach wêrby’t in lienfolger ôfliede kin of net.
Vipatti Sutta (AN 7.30) - fergrutte oersetting
    Sân punten fan gedrach, wêryn in leagfolger syn / har mislearring of súkses foldwaan kin.
Parābhava Sutta (AN 7.31) - fergrutte oersetting
    Sân punten fan gedrach, wêryn in lienfolger syn / har ruin of prosperte foldwaan kin.
Saññā Sutta (AN 7.49) - fergrutte oersetting
    Sân ynderlike refleksjes dy’t goed binne ferfolje.
Nagaropama Sutta (AN 7.67) - flakte teksten mei Pali Formulas
    Hjirmei brûkt de Buddha in ferheegjende simele om te ferklearjen hoe
sân goede eigenskippen dy’t troch de trainee behearske wurde moatte om
sukses te wurkjen om de soldaten fan Māra (dh akusala dhammas) te
foarkommen fan ‘e festing fan’ e geast te foarkommen.
Satthusāsana Sutta (AN 7.83) - wurd troch wurd
    Hjir is in tige konkreet sânfâldige ynstruksje om te diskriminearjen wat de Teaching of the Buddha is fanút wat net is.

—— oooOooo ——
8. Aṭṭhaka Nipāta

Nanda Sutta (AN 8,9) (útskeakelje) - wurd troch wurd
    De
Buddha beskriuwt hoe’t Nanda, hoewol’t er bekrêftiget fan fersteurjende
betsjinning, praktys inoar yn oerienstimming mei syn ynstruksjes. Dizze sutta befettet in definysje fan satisampajañña.
Mahānāma Sutta (AN 8.25) (útskeakelje) - wurd troch wurd
    Mahānāma freget de Bouddha om te definiearjen wat in learlingfol is en yn hokker respect is in lienfolger tastien te wêzen.
Anuruddhamahāvitakka Sutta (AN 8.30) - inkele ynformaasje · blasen
    Sân wiidige tinzen dy’t wierliken ferstean en fertsjinnend binne te winnen. Anuruddha. De Buddha komt oan him om him de liede te leare, mei’t hy it arahantsjest ta sil. De Buddha beslút dan yn detail de betsjutting fan dy gedachten.
Abhisanda Sutta (AN 8.39) - fergrutte oersetting
    Hjir binne acht manieren wêrby’t alle serieus fan ‘e Buddha in protte merit foar har meitsje.
Duccaritavipāka Sutta (AN 8.40) - in pear ynfoen
    Dizze sutta beskriuwt it soarte fan lijen dat men ûndergie troch de netbeheining fan ‘e wichtichste foarskriften.
Saṅkhitta Sutta (AN 8.53) - wurd troch wurd
    De Buddha jout hjir oan syn eardere krúspunt acht kritearia om
diskriminearjen oft in befêstige deklaraasje heart by syn ûnderwiis
heart of net, dy’t hjoeddedei brûkber wêze kin.
Dīghajāṇu Sutta (AN 8.54) {ekerpt} - flakte teksten
    Under oaren fêstiget de Buddha yn dizze sutta wat hy betsjut troch generosity.
Vimokkha Sutta (AN 8.66) - fergrutte oersetting
    In ferklearring fan ‘e acht vimokkhas (befrijings).
Parihāna Sutta (AN 8.79) - sûnder oersetting
    De Buddha ferklearret wat de acht dhammas liede ta de fersmoarging fan in bhikkhu ûnder trening.

—— oooOooo ——

9. Navaka Nipāta

Nāga Sutta (AN 9.40) - flakke teksten
    Dizze sutta, kleure mei subtile humor, ferklearret hoe’t in bhikkhu
fan ferhege geast fergelykber is mei in solitêre elefant, beide wurde
normaal neamd Nāga.
Tapussa Sutta (AN 9.41) (ekstrapt) - flakte teksten
    Hjir saññà · vedayita · nirodha, wurdt it beëinigjen fan sañasa en vedanā presintearre as njoggen jhāna.
Sikkhādubbalya Sutta (AN 9.63) - wurd troch wurd
    Wat te dwaan as men noch net perfekt is yn ‘e fiif foarskriften.
Nīvaraṇa Sutta (AN 9.64) - wurd troch wurd
    Hoe de fiif hinderingen te fuortsmite.

—— oooOooo ——

10. Dasaka Nipāta

Sañojjana Sutta (AN 10,13) - flakte teksten
    Dizze tige koart sutta listet de tsien sa’yyojanas.
Kasiṇa Sutta (AN 10.25) - wurd troch wurd
    Dit is de standerdisearring fan ‘e praktyk op’ e tsien kasiṇas.
Girimānanda Sutta (AN 10.60) - fergrutte oersetting
    Om de Girimānanda te helpen fan in earnstige sykte te krijen, jout de
Buddha in grutte ynlieding om tsien soarten fan tige nuttige optreden te
behanneljen dy’t ûntwikkele wurde kinne.
Kathāvatthu Sutta (AN 10.69) (ekstrapt) - flakte teksten
    De Buddha is opnij bhikkhus wat se net prate en wat se prate moatte.
Cunda Sutta (AN 10.176) - guon info · blasen
    De buddha ferklearret in djipper sinigens fan ‘e reinheid, yn kāya,
vācā en mana, net yn rites of rituelen en beweart dat de eardere de
lêste hat, dy’t net yn’ e effektiviteit foarsichtich is.

—— oooOooo ——

11. Ekādasaka Nipāta

30/03/2555
Mettā Sutta (AN 11.15) - in pear ynfoen
Alve goed resultaten dy’t út ‘e praktyk fan mettā komme.

—— oooOooo ——

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CnX5nnOm9HM
Hologram Pyramid Movie Buddha 3D low
Hdhd Dbd
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How to create holographic show | [DIY] | Home made Hologram | Silapathikaram hologram
Vijayan T
Published on Jun 18, 2016
I love all kinds of 3D technology. Anaglyph, polarizer, head-mounted, stereogram, hologram …and all.

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10 Most Advanced HologramS that are INSANE!
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Amazing Hologram Technology Is Transforming Our World 2017 Part 2

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7D Hologram Technology Amazing Show in Dubai !!

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How to create Holographic GIF in Photoshop.
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https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/…/articles…/61852629.cms
It’s rather interesting to note that the author of the comment at sl.
no. III. below considers defanging of the Atrocities Act as a step
towards a casteless society.
At least implicitly, the author holds
that the Atrocities Act, or rather the way it was till now, is
incompatible with inter-caste marriage, which he advocates, one’d guess
rather rightly, in order to move towards a casteless society.
These two are mutually exclusive.
The author doesn’t bother to explain why?

Apart from that, the logic of “saving the innocents” was recently used
also in case of the dowry harassment Act, in order to water it down.
Subsequently, the Supreme Court appears to have backtracked.

Dowry harassment cases: SC to re-examine its verdict on no immediate arrest - Times of India

India
News: Expressing concern over misuse of anti-dowry law by disgruntled
wives against her husband and in-laws, a division bench of the apex
court had in July

timesofindia.indiatimes.com

http://indianexpress.com/…/after-mps-3-ministers-call-for-…/

After MPs, 3 Ministers call for review petition against Supreme Court order on SC/ST atrocities Act
While the Supreme Court order was criticised by Dalit rights groups and
even Dalit MPs from BJP as weakening the legislation, the Congress hit
out at the government for the inept handling of the case by the
Additional Solicitor General.

Written by Shalini Nair , Lalmani Verma | New Delhi | Updated: March 23, 2018 4:59 am

Ram Vilas Paswan on SC/ST Act “The BJP should introspect why are allies
upset or are quitting the alliance. Even the results of the bypolls are
indicative of this,” said LJP MP Mehboob Ali Kaiser (In picture: LJP
chief Ram Vilas Paswan)

RELATED NEWS
Why the Centre must go for revision of judgment on SC/ST lawWhy the Centre must go for revision of judgment on SC/ST law
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SC

UIDAI’s Aadhaar gem: ‘Fastest computer will take life of
universe to breach’UIDAI’s Aadhaar gem: ‘Fastest computer will take life
of universe to breach’
After Lok Sabha MPs, three ministers in the
Narendra Modi government Thursday stressed the need for a review
petition following the Supreme Court’s decision to dilute stringent
provisions under the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes
(Prevention of Atrocities) Act.

While Minister for Social Justice
and Empowerment Thaawarchand Gehlot took a more cautious stand that
such a petition would require the law ministry’s inputs, two NDA allies
Minister of State for Social Justice Ramdas Athawale, who heads
Republican Party of India (A), and Union Cabinet Minister and chief of
Lok Jan Shakti Party (LJP) Ram Vilas Paswan said the Centre should file a
review petition.

Gehlot told The Indian Express that he
discussed the Supreme Court order Thursday with Law minister Ravi
Shankar Prasad, Finance Minister Arun Jaitley and BJP National chief
Amit Shah. “They said that they will study the matter and we will take
further action on their directions. For now, It looks like there might
be a need for a review petition, but the final decision will be based on
what our law minister advises,” he said.

Read | SC/ST Act: BJP’s Dalit MPs want government to file review petition against SC order

His junior minister Athawale said he was unhappy with the Supreme Court
order and termed it “one-sided and unjust to Dalits and Adivasis”.
Athawale too said he met with Shah and Jaitley and that the former
assured him that he has directed Law Minister Prasad to study the court
order and take a decision on filing a review petition.

“The
Congress has alleged that the government lawyers did not argue the case
properly in the court. But the government is ready for a review
petition. This government is not anti-Dalit but is concerned about the
issue of Dalit atrocities. It was Modi government that moved amendments
to the Atrocities Act in 2015 and made it stronger,” he said.

While the Supreme Court order was criticised by Dalit rights groups and
even Dalit MPs from BJP as weakening the legislation, the Congress hit
out at the government for the inept handling of the case by the
Additional Solicitor General.

Read | SC/ST Atrocities Act: In NDA, two different views on Supreme Court order

Citing misuse of the Atrocities Act, the two-judge Supreme Court bench
of Justices UU Lalit and AK Goel Tuesday laid down stringent safeguards,
including provisions for anticipatory bail and a “preliminary inquiry”
before registering a case under the Act.

Athawale said that he
disagreed with the apex court’s view that there were many false cases.
“When a Dalit girl is raped, a Dalit boy is murdered for falling his
love with a girl of another caste, a Dalit’s house is burnt, he is
assaulted, the Atrocities Act should apply automatically. Every year,
the police register 47,000 cases under the Act. Of these, the rare
possibility of false cases occurs if two people have a disagreement and
the Atrocities Act is slapped on the non-SC person on the grounds that
he verbally abused the SC person by his caste name,” he said.

According to him, the Atrocities Act was enacted in 1989 after data
showed Dalit atrocities had increased despite the Protection of Civil
Rights Act, 1955. “The law was brought in following a detailed
discussion in Parliament where all MPs agreed on the need for a stronger
legislation that makes the offence non-bailable. How can the court
allow anticipatory bail in such a case? Also, the Act does not say
anything about taking prior sanction of a higher authority before
arresting the accused. No higher officer is greater than the law. The
law is the final word,” he said,

He also said that in the name of
“misuse”, the SC order diluted a very important legislation for Dalit
rights. “The law was not brought in to do further injustice to Dalits
but to act against those who subject them to any injustice,” he said.

Paswan said his party would examine the legal options – because the LJP
is not a party in the case – and then file a review petition next week
on its own. He said that he had spoken to Gehlot and now LJP leaders
would also meet BJP president Amit Shah on the issue soon.

“There
is an atmosphere of despair among SCs and STs due to the order,” Paswan
said. Pointing out that act was made more stringent by the Narendra
Modi government, he said that the Congress was taking undue advantage of
the matter and using it for political gains and hence it was necessary
for the BJP to send out a message by filing a review petition.

LJP parliamentary board Chairperson Chirag Paswan said that dilution of
the Atrocities Act could lead to an increase in atrocities against SCs
and STs, in which crime is committed against them only because they are
from a particular caste. He said that the Act was a legal arm for SCs
and STs to protect themselves from exploitation.

Retired IAS
officer, P S Krishnan, who was Secretary to the government of India when
the Mandal notification was issued, wrote to Gehlot that the government
would need to move the Prevention of Atrocities Act (1989) and its
Amendment brought in 2015 to the Ninth Schedule for protection from
judicial review.

He also said, “In the petition/appeal, the
government must present a holistic picture such as the socio-historical
background of the Act, the extreme vulnerability of the SCs and STs and
the importance of not diluting any of the provisions of the Act.”

An important voice in the Dalit/Tribal rights discourse, Krishnan said:
“Any delay in taking action by the Government will result in adverse
conclusion being drawn by the SCs and STs, linking with the piling up of
huge Post-Matric Scholarship arrears and the ill-conceived order of the
UGC dated March 5, 2018 with the approval of the Ministry of HRD, which
the Government… is now seeking to reverse and apparently intends to
file a review petition in the Supreme Court.”

http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme-court-ruling-on-scst-act-congress-demands-review-petition/article23314356.ece

http://www.thehindu.com/…/supreme-court…/article23314356.ece

Supreme Court ruling on SC/ST Act: Congress demands review petition

Sandeep Phukan

NEW DELHI, MARCH 21, 2018 22:03 IST
UPDATED: MARCH 21, 2018 22:03 IST

RAHUL
The Centre did not present the case well because it suited its [the Centre’s] agenda, the Congress alleges
.
Prompted by Congress chief Rahul Gandhi, senior leaders of the party in
Parliament on Wednesday demanded that the Centre should file a review
petition against the Supreme Court ruling on the Scheduled Caste and
Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, or bring an
amendment to undo the top court’s ruling.

The court ruling is
aimed at preventing misuse of the law as under existing provisions,
whereby merely filing a complaint under the SC/ST Act empowers the
police to immediately arrest an accused without preliminary
investigation.

Many argue that the provisions of the law are
abused to blackmail officials into submission but the Congress countered
that any law can be prone to misuse.

The party said the Supreme
Court effectively took away the teeth of the law that was meant to be a
powerful deterrent against crimes targeting Dalits and tribals.

MP sees conspiracy

The Congress further alleged that the Centre was party to the case in
the Supreme Court and did not present the case well because it suited
its [the Centre’s] agenda.

“I won’t call it a dilution but a
conspiracy to end the law itself and take away the benefits and
protection that the Constitution and the Act guaranteed, and this suits
the RSS (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh) and the BJP (Bharatiya Janata
Party),” said Kumari Selja, Congress Rajya Sabha MP.

Critical component

The political importance of the issue for Mr. Gandhi can be gauged from
the fact that the Congress’ seniormost leaders in the Rajya Sabha
(Ahmed Patel, Anand Sharma, Kumari Selja and Raj Babbar) along with
younger leaders known to be close to him (Jyotiraditya Scindia and
Randeep Singh Surjewala) addressed a joint press conference. Dalit
outreach has been an important part of Mr. Gandhi’s politics.

Mr.
Scindia, who’s the chief whip of the party in the Lok Sabha, alleged
that at first the BJP-RSS had wanted to end reservations for SC/STs and
now wanted dilution [of the Act].

Congress communication chief
Randeep Surjewala said the Centre and the Maharashtra government had not
presented the case properly in the SC.

https://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/…/sc-bats-for-ca…/

SC Bats For Casteless Society: Unfortunately there are few political takers

March 22, 2018, 8:26 PM IST Rudroneel Ghosh in Talking Turkey | India | TOI

The Supreme Court’s recent ruling on the SC/ST (Prevention of
Atrocities) Act introducing provisions for anticipatory bail,
preliminary inquiry and no automatic arrests was guided by the court’s
intention to protect innocents. Additionally, the court wanted to
reinterpret the Act to promote the Constitutional ideal of a casteless
society. On the first point, there can be no arguments against
protecting innocents or those falsely accused. No matter how necessary a
law is, if it fails to safeguard innocents then the very purpose of the
law fails. In that sense, any misuse of the SC/ST Act is deplorable and
the court is right in trying to fix the lacunae.

That said, it
is the second aspect of creating a casteless society that is more
tricky. It logically follows that in a casteless society there would be
no need for a piece of legislation like the SC/ST Act. However, it’s a
fact that we are far away from such an ideal situation. Caste, despite
our best efforts to eliminate it, has proved to be an extremely stubborn
thing. So pervasive is its influence that even egalitarian religions
like Islam have seen caste seep into their Indian practices. This is an
irony given that Dalits who converted to Islam or tribals who took up
Christianity did so to escape social stratification and associated
oppression.

Plus, political parties have no interest in
eliminating caste. Each and every one of them is guilty of appealing to
caste constituencies for votes. Given that the Indian electorate is yet
to reach a sufficient level of education and maturity, it is far easier
for political parties to segregate the Indian people along caste lines
and tailor their message on the basis of caste identities. But this also
creates a vicious cycle whereby caste is reinforced instead of
gradually eroding away through the effects of education and technology.

So how does one go about eliminating caste? The way I see it, caste
will lose eventually. In an Artificial Intelligence-driven future the
concept of nations itself will be challenged, let along caste. In the
interim, the only way to diminish caste is through love. It might sound
hackneyed but inter-caste/ inter-religious marriages – which are bound
to increase – hold the key to erasing away antediluvian social mores.
And this is where the BJP-RSS is getting it wrong. While today it
adheres to an ideological position that is against caste, it is also
against inter-religious marriages as exemplified by its so-called love
jihad frame. But you can’t be ideologically fine with inter-caste
marriages and at the same time hold contempt for inter-religious
marriages. One can’t support equality in one aspect but reject equality
in another area. Selective equality is an accessory to exclusivism.

Thus, any genuinely progressive political formation should support
inter-caste/ inter-religious marriages as an intermediate step to
destroying caste and communalism. Unfortunately, all political parties –
including the so-called liberal ones – are unwilling to really
challenge caste and religious conservatism for the fear of losing vote
banks.

—
Peace Is Doable

SC Bats For Casteless Society: Unfortunately there are few political takers

blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com

2569 Fri 23 Mar 2018 LESSON http://www.buddha-vacana.org/ Buddha Vacana — The words of the Buddha — in 28 Classical French- Français Classique From The Minding Centre (TMC) @ Shenton House Join our Early Buddhism Community FACEBOOK Page. It may better your life: https://www.facebook.com /dharmafarer/ Create an account or log into Facebook. Connect with friends, family and other people you know. Share photos and videos, send messages and get updates. facebook.com Meet ‘Elliot Alderson’ – the vigilante hacker taking down UIDAI (or Aadhaar), one tweet at a time Rs 500, 10 minutes, and you have access to billion Aadhaar details JALANDHAR:It was only last November that the UIDAI asserted that “Aadhaar data is fully safe and secure and there has been no data leak or breach at UIDAI. tribuneindia.com Aadhaar Data Safe Behind 5 Feet Thick Walls: Centre to Supreme Court KK Venugopal made the statement while arguing that the biometric data taken from millions was safe.

03/22/18

Filed under: General
Posted by: site admin @ 5:51 pm

2569 Fri 23 Mar 2018 LESSON

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/

Buddha Vacana
— The words of the Buddha —

in 28 Classical French- Français Classique

From The Minding Centre (TMC) @ Shenton House

Join our Early Buddhism Community FACEBOOK Page. It may better your life: https://www.facebook.com /dharmafarer/

Create
an account or log into Facebook. Connect with friends, family and other
people you know. Share photos and videos, send messages and get
updates.

facebook.com

Meet ‘Elliot Alderson’ – the vigilante hacker taking down UIDAI (or Aadhaar), one tweet at a time

Rs 500, 10 minutes, and you have access to billion Aadhaar details

JALANDHAR:It
was only last November that the UIDAI asserted that “Aadhaar data is
fully safe and secure and there has been no data leak or breach at
UIDAI.

tribuneindia.com

Aadhaar Data Safe Behind 5 Feet Thick Walls: Centre to Supreme Court
KK Venugopal made the statement while arguing that the biometric data taken from millions was safe.

28 Classical French
28 Français Classique

2568 jeu 22 mars 2018 LEÇON

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/

Bouddha Vacana
- Les paroles du Bouddha -
Le bouddhisme classique (Enseignements de l’éveillé avec conscience) appartient au monde, et chacun a des droits exclusifs:

est l’Énergie la plus positive du site informatif et orienté vers la
recherche qui propage les enseignements de l’Éveillé avec la Conscience
du Bouddha et sur le Mouvement techno-politico-socio-transformation et
émancipation économique suivi par des millions de personnes partout dans
le monde.

Rendu
traduction exacte comme une leçon de cette Université dans sa langue
maternelle à cette https://translate.google.com Google Translation et la
propagation permet de devenir un Stream Enterer (Sottapanna) et
d’atteindre la béatitude éternelle comme objectif final. Analytic Insight-Net - GRATUIT en ligne analytique Insight-Net
Université de recherche et de pratique Tipiṭaka et des nouvelles
connexes à travers http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org en 105 LANGUES
CLASSIQUES

Bouddha Vacana
- Les paroles du Bouddha -
Apprenez Pali en ligne gratuitement et de manière simple.

Ce
site est dédié à ceux qui souhaitent mieux comprendre les mots du
Bouddha en apprenant les bases de la langue Pali, mais qui n’ont pas
beaucoup de temps pour cela. L’idée
est que si leur but est simplement de pouvoir lire les textes Pali et
de les comprendre, même si cette compréhension ne couvre pas tous les
moindres détails des règles grammaticales, ils n’ont pas vraiment besoin
de dépenser beaucoup. le temps se débat avec un apprentissage décourageant de la théorie
grammaticale fastidieuse impliquant des choses telles que de nombreuses
déclinaisons et conjugaisons.

Dans
ce cas, il suffit de se limiter à apprendre simplement la signification
des mots pali les plus importants, car l’expérience répétée de la
lecture fournit une compréhension empirique et intuitive des structures
de phrases les plus courantes. Ils sont ainsi habilités à devenir des autodidactes en choisissant
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Leur
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Sutta Piṭaka -Digha Nikāya

DN 9 -
Poṭṭhapāda Sutta
{extrait}
- Les questions de Poṭṭhapāda -

Poṭṭhapāda pose diverses questions sur la nature de Saññā.
Note: textes simples

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/suttapitaka.html
Sutta Piṭaka
- Le panier des discours -
[sutta: discours]

Le Sutta Piṭaka contient l’essence de l’enseignement du Bouddha concernant le Dhamma. Il contient plus de dix mille suttas. Il est divisé en cinq collections appelées Nikāyas.

Dīgha Nikāya
    [dīgha: long] Le Dīgha Nikāya rassemble 34 des plus longs discours donnés par le Bouddha. Il y a plusieurs indices que beaucoup d’entre eux sont des ajouts tardifs au corpus original et d’une authenticité discutable.
Majjhima Nikāya
    [majjhima: medium] La Majjhima Nikāya rassemble 152 discours du Bouddha de longueur intermédiaire, traitant de divers sujets.
Saṃyutta Nikāya
    [samyutta: groupe] Le Saṃyutta Nikāya rassemble les suttas selon leur sujet dans 56 sous-groupes appelés saṃyuttas. Il contient plus de trois mille discours de longueur variable, mais généralement relativement courts.
Aṅguttara Nikāya
    [aṅg: facteur | uttara:
additionnal] Le Aṅguttara Nikāya est subdivisé en onze sous-groupes
appelés nipātas, chacun d’eux rassemblant des discours composés
d’énumérations d’un facteur supplémentaire par rapport à celles du
précédent nipāta. Il contient des milliers de suttas qui sont généralement courts.
Khuddaka Nikāya
    [khuddha:
court, petit] Les textes courts de Khuddhaka Nikāya et sont considérés
comme composés de deux strates: Dhammapada, Udana, Itivuttaka, Sutta
Nipāta, Theragāthā-Therīgāthā et Jātaka forment les anciennes strates,
tandis que d’autres livres sont des ajouts tardifs et leur authenticité.
est plus discutable.

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/formulae.html

Arbre

Pali Formules

Le
point de vue sur lequel repose cette œuvre est que les passages des
suttas qui sont répétés le plus souvent par le Bouddha dans les quatre
Nikāyas peuvent être considérés comme indiquant ce qu’il considère être
le plus digne d’intérêt dans son enseignement. et en même temps que ce qui représente avec la plus grande précision ses mots actuels. Huit d’entre eux sont exposés dans le Gaṇaka-Moggallāna Sutta (MN 107) et décrits comme le Sekha Paṭipadā ou Pa http://www.buddha-vacana.org/formulae.html

Pali Formules

Le
point de vue sur lequel repose cette œuvre est que les passages des
suttas qui sont répétés le plus souvent par le Bouddha dans les quatre
Nikāyas peuvent être considérés comme indiquant ce qu’il considère être
le plus digne d’intérêt dans son enseignement. et en même temps que ce qui représente avec la plus grande précision ses mots actuels. Huit d’entre eux sont exposés dans le Gaṇaka-Moggallāna Sutta (MN 107)
et décrits comme le Sekha Paṭipadā ou Sentier pour un sous
entraînement, qui conduit pratiquement le néophyte jusqu’au quatrième
Jhāna.

Sekha Paṭipadā - Le chemin pour un sous la formation

Douze formules qui définissent pas à pas les principales pratiques prescrites par le Bouddha. Il est d’une importance fondamentale pour quiconque souhaite
progresser avec succès, car il contient les instructions qui permettront
au méditant de mettre en place les conditions indispensables à une
pratique efficace.

Ānāpānassati - Conscience du souffle
    La pratique d’ānāpānassati est fortement recommandée par le Bouddha
pour toutes sortes de buts salutaires et ici vous pouvez comprendre très
précisément les instructions qu’il donne.
Anussati - Les souvenirs
    Ici nous avons la description standard du Bouddha (≈140 occ.), Du Dhamma (≈90 occ.) Et du Sangha (≈45 occ.).
Appamāṇā Cetovimutti - Les libérations illimitées de l’esprit
    Le Bouddha fait souvent l’éloge de la pratique des quatre appamāṇā
cetovimutti, réputés pour leur protection contre les dangers et pour
leur cheminement vers le Brahmaloka.
Arahatta - Arahantes
    C’est la formule de stock par laquelle la réalisation de l’état d’arahant est décrite dans les suttas.
Ariya Sīlakkhandha - L’agrégat noble de la vertu
    Diverses règles à suivre par bhikkhus.
Arūpajjhānā - Les Jhānas sans forme
    Voici les formules de stock décrivant les absorptions de samādhi
au-delà du quatrième jhāna, qui sont appelées arūpajjhānas dans la
littérature de Pali tardive.
Āsavānaṃ Khayañāṇa - Connaissance de la destruction des âsavas
    Connaissance de la destruction des âsavas: l’état d’arahant.
Bhojane Mattaññutā - Modération alimentaire
    Modération dans la nourriture: connaître la bonne quantité à manger.
Cattāro Jhānā - Les quatre jhānas
    Les quatre jhānas: avoir un agréable séjour.
Indriyesu Guttadvāratā - Surveillance à l’entrée des facultés sensorielles
    Garde à l’entrée des facultés sensorielles: retenue des sens.
Jāgariyaṃ Anuyoga - Dédicace à l’éveil
    Dédicace à l’éveil: jour et nuit.
Kammassakomhi - Je suis mon propre kamma
    Cette formule explique l’une des pierres angulaires de l’enseignement
du Bouddha: une version subjective de la loi de cause à effet.
Nīvaraṇānaṃ Pahāna - Suppression des obstacles
    Suppression des obstacles: surmonter les états mentaux obstructifs.
Pabbajjā - L’avenir
    Le départ: comment on décide de renoncer au monde.
Pubbenivāsānussatiñāṇa - Connaissance du souvenir des anciens lieux de vie
    Connaissance du souvenir des anciens lieux de vie: se souvenir de ses vies passées.
Satipaṭṭhāna - Présence de la conscience
    Ce sont les formules par lesquelles le Bouddha définit brièvement ce que sont les quatre satipaṭṭhānas (≈33 occ.).
Satisampajañña - Mindfulness et compréhension approfondie
    Mindfulness et compréhension approfondie: une pratique ininterrompue.
Satta saddhammā - Sept bonnes qualités
    Sept qualités fondamentales qui doivent être maîtrisées par le stagiaire pour réussir. Quatre de ces qualités apparaissent aussi parmi les cinq indriyas spirituels et les cinq balas.
Sattānaṃ Cutūpapātañāṇa - Connaissance de la renaissance des êtres divisés
    Connaissance de la renaissance des êtres divisés.
Sīlasampatti - Accomplissement dans la vertu
    Accomplissement dans la vertu: une observation attentive des règles de Pātimokkha.
Vivitta Senāsanena Bhajana - Recourir à des habitations isolées
    Le choix d’un lieu approprié et l’adoption de la posture physique et
mentale appropriée est une autre condition sine qua non d’une pratique
réussie.
Feuille de Bodhi

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/patimokkha.html

Pātimokkha
- Les directives du Bhikkhu -

Ce sont les 227 directives que chaque bhikkhu doit apprendre par cœur en langue pali afin de pouvoir les réciter. Ici, une analyse sémantique de chaque directive sera (espérons-le) fournie.

Pārājika 1
Si
un bhikkhu - participant à la formation et au gagne-pain des bhikkhus,
sans avoir renoncé à l’entraînement, sans avoir déclaré sa faiblesse -
s’engage dans des relations sexuelles, même avec une bête, il est vaincu
et n’est plus affidé.

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/patimokkha/par1.html
Pārājika 1

Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 12.2) - mot à mot
    Une explication détaillée de paṭicca samuppāda, avec une définition de chacun des douze liens.
Cetanā Sutta (SN 12.38) - traduction améliorée
    Ici, le Bouddha explique comment cetanā, avec méditation et anusaya, agissent comme une base pour viññāṇa.
Upādāna Sutta (SN 12.52) - traduction améliorée
    C’est une leçon très éclairante qui révèle par quel mécanisme
psychologique on cède à l’envie, et explique comment il peut facilement
être remplacé par des considérations saines pour s’en débarrasser.
Puttamaṃsūpama Sutta (SN 12.63) - traduction améliorée
    Le Bouddha propose ici quatre comparaisons impressionnantes et
inspirantes pour expliquer comment les quatre âhāras doivent être
considérés.
Sanidāna Sutta (SN 14.12) - traduction améliorée
    Une
explication merveilleuse de la façon dont les perceptions se
transforment en actions, encore éclairées par la comparaison du flambeau
flamboyant. Restez diligemment attentif à dissiper les pensées malsaines!
Suti Sutta (SN 20.7) - mot à mot
    Une
chose très importante nous est rappelée par le Bouddha: pour notre
propre bénéfice aussi bien que pour le bien des générations à venir,
nous devons donner le plus d’importance à ses propres paroles, et pas
tellement à ceux qui prétendent aujourd’hui ou a prétendu dans le passé être un bon enseignant (Dhamma).
Samādhi Sutta (SN 22.5) - mot à mot
    Le Bouddha exhorte ses disciples à développer la concentration afin
qu’ils puissent s’interroger sur l’émergence et la disparition des cinq
agrégats, après quoi il définit ce qu’il entend en produisant et en
dissipant les agrégats, en termes d’origine dépendante.
Paṭisallāṇa Sutta (SN 22.6) - sans traduction
    Le Bouddha exhorte ses adeptes à pratiquer la réclusion afin qu’ils
puissent s’interroger sur l’émergence et la disparition des cinq
agrégats, après quoi il définit ce qu’il entend par l’émergence et la
disparition des agrégats, en termes d’origine dépendante.
Upādāparitassanā Sutta (SN 22.8) - mot par mot
    L’apparition et la cessation de la souffrance ont lieu dans les cinq agrégats.
Nandikkhaya Sutta (SN 22.51) - mot après mot
    Comment opérer la destruction de la joie.
Anattalakkhana Sutta (SN 22.59) - mot par mot
    Dans ce très célèbre sutta, le Bouddha expose pour la première fois son enseignement sur l’anatta.
Khajjanīya Sutta (SN 22.79) {extrait} - mot après mot
    Ce sutta fournit une définition succincte des cinq khandhas.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 29.1) - traduction améliorée
    Les différents types de nāgas.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 30.1) - traduction améliorée
    Les différents types de supaṇṇas (aka garudas).
Suddhika Sutta (SN 31.1) - traduction améliorée
    Les différents types de devas gandhabba.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 32.1) - traduction améliorée
    Les différents types de devas de nuage.
Samāpattimūlakaṭhiti Sutta (SN 34.11) - traduction améliorée
    Atteindre la concentration par rapport au maintien de la concentration.
Pubbesambodha Sutta (SN 35.13) - mot à mot
    Le Bouddha définit ce qu’il entend par attrait, inconvénient et
émancipation dans le cas des sphères de sens internes, puis déclare que
son éveil n’était ni plus ni moins que de les comprendre.
Abhinanda Sutta (SN 35.20) - mot à mot
    Il n’y a pas d’échappatoire pour celui qui se délecte des objets des sens.
Migajāla Sutta (SN 35.46) - traduction améliorée
    Pourquoi la vraie solitude est-elle si difficile à trouver? Le Bouddha explique pourquoi, peu importe où vous allez, vos compagnons les plus ennuyeux marquent toujours.
Avijjāpahāna Sutta (SN 35.53) - mot par mot
    Un discours très simple, mais ve

2568 Thu 22 Mar 2018 LESSON http://www.buddha-vacana.org/ Buddha Vacana — The words of the Buddha — in 27 Classical Finnish- klassista suomalaista, Civil Servant Files Complaint Against Zee Hindustan for Pushing Communal Agenda Facebook-to-Votes Scandal Turns Spotlight on Cambridge Analytica’s India Inroads For new-age election strategy firms like CA, the digital footprints that people leave behind while using social networks and mobile applications are the secret to influencing voter behaviour.

03/21/18

Filed under: General
Posted by: site admin @ 6:03 pm

2568 Thu 22 Mar 2018 LESSON

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/

Buddha Vacana
— The words of the Buddha —

in 27 Classical Finnish- klassista suomalaista,

Civil Servant Files Complaint Against Zee Hindustan for Pushing Communal Agenda

Facebook-to-Votes Scandal Turns Spotlight on Cambridge Analytica’s India Inroads

For
new-age election strategy firms like CA, the digital footprints that
people leave behind while using social networks and mobile applications
are the secret to influencing voter behaviour.

https://www.youtube.com/watch…
Finnish Folk Song, MeNaiset - Kuulin aanen (I Heard the Voice)

Finnish Folk Song, MeNaiset - Kuulin aanen (I Heard the Voice)

youtube.com

27 Classical Finnish
27 klassista suomalaista
2568 To 22.3.2018 OPETUS

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/

Buddha Vacana
- Buddhan sanat -
Klassinen buddhalaisuus (Awakened One with Awareness) kuuluu maailmaan, ja kaikilla on yksinoikeudet:

on informatiivisen ja tutkimuslähtöisen sivuston eniten positiivinen
energia, joka herättää Awakened Onein opetuksia Buddha-tietoisuuden ja
Techno-Politico-Socio-Transformation ja Economic Emancipation Movement
-ohjelman avulla. Seuraavat miljoonat ihmiset kaikkialla maailmassa.

Tämän
käännöksen esittäminen tämän yliopiston oppitunniksi omalla
äidinkielellä tähän Google-käännöksiin https://translate.google.com ja
lisäys oikeuttaa tulla Stream Entre (Sottapanna) ja saavuttamaan Eternal
Blissin lopullisena tavoitteena. Analytic Insight-Net - ILMAINEN Online Analytic Insight-Net Tipiṭakan
tutkimus ja käytäntö yliopisto ja siihen liittyvät uutiset
http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org kautta 105 CLASSICAL LANGUAGES

Buddha Vacana
- Buddhan sanat -
Opi Pali verkossa ilmaiseksi ja helposti.

Tämä
sivusto on omistettu niille, jotka haluavat paremmin ymmärtää Buddhan
sanoja oppimalla Pali-kielen perusasiat mutta joilla ei ole paljon aikaa
sille. Ajatuksena
on, että jos niiden tarkoitus on vain saada Pali-tekstien lukeminen ja
olla oikeudenmukainen ymmärrys, vaikka tämä ymmärrys ei kattaisi kaikkia
kieliä koskevien sääntöjen pieniä yksityiskohtia, niiden ei todellakaan
tarvitse käyttää paljon aika kamppailee järkyttävän kieliopillisen teorian harhaanjohtavasta
oppimisesta, johon liittyy sellaisia asioita kuin lukuisat muokkaukset
ja konjugaatiot.

Tällöin
riittää rajoittaa itseään yksinkertaisesti oppia tärkeimpien
Pali-sanojen merkitys, koska toistuva lukemisen kokemus antaa empiirisen
ja intuitiivisen ymmärryksen yleisimmistä lauserakenteista. Niillä on näin ollen mahdollisuus tulla autodidatteiksi, valitsemalla
oman tutkimuksensa aika, kesto, taajuus, sisältö ja syvyys.

Heidän
ymmärryksensä Buddha Vacanasta tulevat paljon tarkemmiksi, sillä he
helposti oppivat ja muistavat sanoja ja tärkeitä kaavoja, jotka ovat
olennaisen tärkeitä Buddhan opetuksessa säännöllisinä lukemisen tavoin. Heidän oppiminen ja inspiraatio, jonka he saavat, kasvavat syvemmälle,
kun heidän vastaanottavuutensa opettajan sanomisiin paranee.

Vastuuvapauslauseke: Tämä sivusto on luotu autodidactilla, ja se on tarkoitettu autodidakteille. Verkkovastaava
ei ole noudattanut mitään virallista Pali-kurssia eikä ole mitään
väitettä siitä, että kaikki tässä esitetyt tiedot ovat täysin
virheettömiä. Ne, jotka haluavat akateemista tarkkuutta, voivat harkita virallisen Pali-kurssin liittymistä. Jos lukijat havaitsevat virheen, verkkovastaava on kiitollinen, jos
hän ilmoittaa siitä yhteydenottosivulla mainitun postilaatikon kautta.

Sutta Piṭaka -Digha Nikāya

DN 9 -
Poṭṭhapāda Sutta
{ote}
- Poṭṭhapādan kysymykset -

Poṭṭhapāda esittää useita kysymyksiä Saññan luonteesta.
Huomaa: tavallisia tekstejä

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/suttapitaka.html
Sutta Piṭaka
- Diskurssikori -
[sutta: diskurssi]

Sutta Pattaka sisältää Buddhan Dhamma-opetuksen olemuksen. Se sisältää yli kymmenen tuhatta setta. Se on jaettu viiteen kokoelmaan nimeltä Nikāyas.

Dīgha Nikāya
    [dīgha: pitkä] Dīgha Nikāya kokoaa 34 pisimpään Buddhan antamaa puheenaihetta. Useita vihjeitä on, että monet niistä ovat alkuperäisen korpuksen ja kyseenalaisen aitouden myöhäisiä lisäyksiä.
Majjhima Nikāya
    [majjhima: medium] Majjhima Nikāya kokoaa 152 keskustelupuhelua Buddhasta, joka käsittelee monenlaisia asioita.
Saṃyutta Nikāya
    [samyutta: ryhmä] Saṃyutta Nikāya kerää suttansa aiheensa mukaan 56: ssa alaryhmässä nimeltä saṃyuttas. Se sisältää yli kolme tuhatta erilaista pituutta, mutta yleensä suhteellisen lyhyt diskurssi.
Aṅguttara Nikāya
    [aṅg: tekijä | utnaka:
additionnal] Aṅguttara Nikāya on jaettu yhdentoista alaryhmään nimeltä
nipātas, joista jokainen kerää diskursseja, jotka koostuvat yhdestä
lisäkertoimesta enumeroitujen lukujen kanssa verrattuna edeltäjän
nipāta. Se sisältää tuhansia suttia, jotka ovat yleensä lyhyitä.
Khuddaka Nikāya
    [khuddha:
lyhyt, pieni] Khuddhaka Nikāya lyhyet tekstit, ja niitä pidetään kahden
strasman muodostamana: Dhammapada, Udāna, Itivuttaka, Sutta Nipāta,
Theragāthā-Therīgāthā ja Jātaka muodostavat muinaiset kerrokset, kun
taas muut kirjat ovat myöhäisiä lisäyksiä ja niiden aitoutta on kyseenalainen.
http://www.buddha-vacana.org/formulae.html

Pali-kaavat

Näkemys,
jonka pohjalta tämä teos perustuu, on se, että sutta, jota raportoidaan
Buddhan useimmiten toistuvana kaikissa neljässä Nikāyassa, voidaan
pitää osoituksena siitä, mitä hän pitää tärkeimpänä kiinnostuksenaan
hänen opetuksessaan , ja samaan aikaan, mikä edustaa suurinta tarkkuutta hänen todelliset sanansa. Kahdeksasta niistä on esitelty Gaalakka-Moggallāna Suttaan (MN 107) ja
niitä kuvataan nimellä Sekha Paṭipadā tai Path for one under Training,
joka käytännössä johtaa uusikoota aina neljänteen jhānaan asti.

Sekha Paṭipadā - Path for one under Training

Kaksitoista kaavaa, jotka määrittelevät vaiheittain Buddhan määräämät tärkeimmät käytännöt. Se on olennaisen tärkeää kaikille, jotka haluavat menestyä
menestyksekkäästi, koska se sisältää ohjeet, joiden avulla meditaattori
pystyy luomaan välttämättömät edellytykset tehokkaalle käytännölle.

Ānāpānassati - tietoisuus hengityksestä
    Buddhan suosittelemaa käytäntöä ānāpānassati on kaikenlaisia
terveellisiä tarkoituksia varten ja täällä pystyt täysin ymmärtämään
hänen antamiaan ohjeita.
Anussati - Muistelmat
    Tässä meillä on buddhan vakiokuvaus (≈140 occ.), Dhamma (≈90 occ.) Ja Sangha (≈45 occ.).
Appamāṇā Cetovimutti - Mielen rajattomat vapaudet
    Buddha ylistää usein neljän appamāṇā cetovimutin käytäntöä, jotka ovat tunnettuja suojaamaan vaaroilta ja johtamaan Brahmalokaa.
Arahatta - Arahantship
    Tämä on varastokuvio, jolla arahansaanti saavutetaan suttasissa.
Ariya Sīlakkhandha - hyveen aatelinen aggregaatti
    Useat säännöt, joita bhikkhus noudattaa.
Arūpajjhānā - Muodostuneet Jhānas
    Tässä ovat varastokaavat, jotka kuvaavat samādhin absorptioita
neljännen jhānan jälkeen, joita kutsutaan myöhäisen Pali-kirjallisuuden
nimellä arūpajjhānas.
Āsavānaṃ Khayañāṇa - Tietämys aavasien tuhosta
    Tietämys aaveiden tuhoamisesta: arahantship.
Bhojane Mattaññutā - ruokavaliota
    Keskittaminen ruoassa: tuntemalla sopiva määrä syödä.
Cattāro Jhānā - Neljä jhānas
    Neljä jhānas: ottaa miellyttävä pysyvä.
Indriyesu Guttadvāratā - Valvonta aistiharjoittelun sisäänkäynnillä
    Vartija aistiharjoittelun sisäänkäynnillä: järkevyys.
Jāgariyaṃ Anuyoga - omistautumista herättävyyteen
    Ajatus heräämiseen: päivä ja yö.
Kammassakomhi - Olen oma kamma
    Tämä kaava esittelee yhden Buddha-opetuksen perustekivistä: subjektiivisen version syy-seurauksista.
Nīvaraṇānaṃ Pahāna - Estojen poistaminen
    Estojen poistaminen: henkisten tilojen estäminen.
Pabbajjā - menossa
    Menossa: miten päätetään luopua maailmasta.
Pubbenivāsānussatiñāṇa - Tieto aikaisemmista asuinpaikoista
    Tieto aikaisemmista asuinpaikoista muistelemisesta: muistelemalla menneitä elämiä.
Satipaṭṭhāna - tietoisuuden olemassaolo
    Nämä ovat kaavoja, joiden avulla Buddha määrittelee lyhyesti, mitkä ovat neljä satipaṭṭhānasta (≈33 occ.).
Satisampajañña - Huolenpito ja perusteellinen ymmärrys
    Huolenpito ja perusteellinen ymmärrys: keskeytymätön käytäntö.
Satta saddhammā - Seitsemän hyvää ominaisuutta
    Seitsemän perustavanlaatuista ominaisuutta, jotka harjoittelijan on hallittava, jotta he onnistuisivat. Neljä näistä ominaisuuksista ilmestyy myös viiden henkisen indriya ja viiden balas.
Sattānaṃ Cutūpapātañāṇa - Tieto syntyneiden olentojen uudelleen syntymisestä
    Tuntemus kiellettyjen olentojen uudelleensyntymisestä.
Sīlasampatti - Tehokkuus
    Tehokkuus: Pātimokkhan sääntöjen tarkka noudattaminen.
Vivitta Senāsanena Bhajana - Asuminen eristettyihin asuntoihin
    Oikean paikan valinta ja asianmukainen fyysinen ja psyykkinen asenne
ovat toinen onnistuneiden käytäntöjen sine qua non edellytys.
Bodhi-lehtiä

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/patimokkha.html

Pātimokkha
- Bhikkhun ohjeet -

Nämä ovat 227 suuntaviivoja, jotka jokainen bhikkhu täytyy oppia sydämellään Pali-kielellä voidakseen sanoa heidät. Tässä jokaisen ohjeen semanttinen analyysi (toivottavasti) annetaan.

Pārājika 1
Jos
joku bhikkhu - osallistuu bhikkhuksen koulutukseen ja toimeentuloon
ilman, että hän olisi luopunut koulutuksesta ja julistanut heikkoutensa -
ryhtymään seksiin, vaikka naaraseläimen kanssakin, hänet voitetaan ja
hän ei ole enää kuulumisessa.
http://www.buddha-vacana.org/patimokkha/par1.html
Pārājika 1

yo pana bhikkhu bhikkhūnaṃ sikkhā · s · ājīva · samāpanno sikkhaṃ a ·
paccakkhāya du · b · balyaṃ an · āvi · katvā metunaṃ dhammaṃ paṭiseveyya
antaaaso tiracchāna · gatāya · pi, pārājiko hoti a · saṃvāso.

Jos joku bhikkhu - osallistuu bhikkhuksen koulutukseen ja
toimeentuloon ilman, että hän olisi luopunut koulutuksesta ja julistanut
heikkoutensa - ryhtymään seksiin, vaikka naaraseläimen kanssakin, hänet
voitetaan ja hän ei ole enää kuulumisessa.

yo pana bhikkhu Jos joku bhikkhu
bhikkhūnaṃ sikkhā · s · ājīva · samāpanno osallistuu bhikkhuksen koulutukseen ja toimeentuloon,
sikkhaṃ a · paccakkhāya ilman luopumista koulutuksesta,
du · b · balya · an · avi · katva ilman ilmoittamaa heikkoutta
metunaṃ dhammaṃ paṭiseveyya harjoittaa seksuaalista kanssakäymistä,
antaaso tiracchāna · gatāya · pi, jopa naaraseläimen kanssa,
pārājiko hoti a · saṃvāso. hänet kukistetaan eikä hän enää ole sidoksissa.

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http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/digha.html
Puu
Dīgha Nikāya
- Pitkät keskustelut -
[dīgha: pitkä]

Dīgha Nikāya kerää 34 pisimpään Buddhan antamaa puheenaihetta.

Poṭṭhapāda Sutta (DN 9) {uloste} - parannettu käännös
    Poṭṭhapāda esittää useita kysymyksiä Saññan luonteesta.
Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (DN 16) {otteita} - sana sana
    Tämä sutta kerää erilaisia ohjeita, joita Buddha antoi seuraajiensa
puolesta, kun hän lähti pois, mikä tekee siitä hyvin tärkeät ohjeet
meille nykyään.
Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (DN 22) - sanatarkkuus
    Tätä suttaa pidetään laajalti perustavanlaatuisena viitekehyksenä meditaatiokäytännöille.

—— ooooooo ——
http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/majjhima.html
Majjhima Nikāya
- Keskipitkän pituiset keskustelut -
[majjhima: medium]

Majjhima Nikāya kerää 152 keskustelupuhetta Buddhasta, jonka pituus on keskipitkä ja joka käsittelee monenlaisia asioita.

Sabbāsava Sutta (MN 2) - parannettu käännös
    Erittäin mielenkiintoinen sutta, jossa eri tavat, joilla āsavas, mielen fermentaaliset defilements, hajoavat.
Bhayabherava Sutta (MN 4) - parannettu käännös
    Mitä se tarvitsisi elää yksinäisyydessä erämaassa, täysin vapaana pelosta? Buddha selittää.
Vattha Sutta (MN 7) {uloste} - parannettu käännös
    Me löydämme täältä melko tavallisen luettelon mielen kuudestatoista
pilaamisesta (upakkilesa) ja selityksestä mekanismista, jolla kukaan saa
nämä “vahvistetut luottamukset” Buddhassa, Dhamma ja Sangha, jotka ovat
virtauksen tekijöitä.
Mahādukkhakkhandha Sutta (MN 13) - parannettu käännös
    On assāda (allure), ādīnava (haittapuoli) ja nissaraṇa (emansipaatio) kāma (aistillisuus), rūpa (muoto) ja vedanā (tunne). Paljon hyvin hyödyllistä asiaa.
Cūḷahatthipadopama Sutta (MN 27) - parannettu käännös
    Buddha selittää, että se, että hän on oikeastaan valaistunut olento,
on otettava uskossa tai oletuksena, kunnes tietty vaihe saavutetaan ja
että tällainen tieto ilman tätä toteutumista on arvoton.
Mahāvedalla Sutta (MN 43) {uloste} - sana sanalla
    Sāriputta vastaa āyasmā Mahākoṭṭhikan esittämiin mielenkiintoisiin
kysymyksiin ja tässä osassa hän selittää, että Vedanā, Saññā ja Viññāṇa
eivät ole selkeästi rajattuja vaan syvästi keskenyt.
Cūḷavedalla Sutta (MN 44) {uloste} - parannettu käännös
    Bhikkhuni Dhammadinnā vastaa joukkoon mielenkiintoisia kysymyksiä, joita Visākha kysyy. Hän antaa muun muassa sakkāyadiṭdhin 20-kertaisen määritelmän.
Sekha Sutta (MN 53) - parannettu käännös
    Buddha pyytää Ānandaa esittelemään Sekha Paṭipadaa, josta hän antaa
yllättävän version, josta Satisampajañña ja Nīvaraṇānaṃ Pahāna korvataan
uteliassti sarjalla seitsemällä “hyvillä ominaisuuksilla” ja jota
kuvastaa kertova simili.
Potaliya Sutta (MN 54) - parannettu käännös
    Sarja seitsemää standardia, jotka selittävät aistillisuuden haittoja ja vaaroja.
Bahuvedanīya Sutta (MN 59) {uloste} - sana sana
    Tässä lyhyessä osassa Buddha määrittelee viisi kāmaguṇaa ja tekee tärkeän vertailun toisenlaisen ilon tyypin kanssa.
Kīṭāgiri Sutta (MN 70) {uloste} - parannettu käännös
    Tämä sutta sisältää määritelmän dhammānusārī ja saddhānusārī.
Bāhitikā Sutta (MN 88) {uloste} - parannettu käännös
    Kosalan kuningas Pasenadi on innokas ymmärtämään, mitä viisaat
askettiset ja brahmalaiset suosittelevat tai eivät, ja hän kysyy
Ānandalle kysymyksiä, jotka antavat meille paremman käsityksen sanasta
kusala (terve) ja akusala (epämiellyttävä).
Ānāpānassati Sutta (MN 118) - sana sana
    Kuuluisa sutta ānāpānassati -tapahtumasta ja siitä, miten se johtaa
neljän satipaṭṭhānan käytäntöön ja subjektiivisesti seitsemän
bojjhaṅgasin täyttymiseen.
Saḷāyatanavibhaṅga Sutta (MN 137) {ulkoinen} - parannettu käännös
    Tässä syvässä ja erittäin mielenkiintoisessa sapissa Buddha
määrittelee muun muassa mielenkiintoisten, epämiellyttävien ja
neutraalien henkisten tunteiden tutkimukset ja määrittelee myös Buddhan
tavanomaisen kuvauksen ilmaisun: “anuttaro purisadammasārathī”.
Indriyabhāvanā Sutta (MN 152) - sana sana
    Tämä sutta tarjoaa kolme lähestymistapaa järkevyyden käytäntöön, jotka
sisältävät lisäohjeita, jotka täydentävät Indriyesu
Guttadvāratā-kaavoja.

—— ooooooo ——
http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/samyutta.html

Puu
Saṃyutta Nikāya
- Luokitellut keskustelut -
[saṃyutta: ryhmä]

Saṃyutta Nikāyan puheet jaetaan teemansa mukaan 56 saṃyuttessa, jotka itsessään on ryhmitelty viiteen mittaan.

Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 12.2) - sana sana
    Yksityiskohtainen selitys paṭicca samuppādasta, jossa määritellään jokainen kahdestatoista linkistä.
Cetanā Sutta (SN 12.38) - parannettu käännös
    Tässä Buddha selittää, kuinka cetanā, yhdessä miettiminen ja anusaya, toimivat viññāṇan perustana.
Upādāna Sutta (SN 12.52) - parannettu käännös
    Tämä on hyvin valaiseva oppitunti, joka paljastaa, millä
psykologisella mekanismilla yksi antaa halu, ja selittää, miten se
voidaan helposti korvata terveellisillä näkökohdilla päästä eroon siitä.
Puttamaṃsūpama Sutta (SN 12.63) - parannettu käännös
    Buddha tarjoaa täällä neljä vaikuttavaa ja inspiroivaa muotoilua selittääkseen, miten neljän āhārasin tulisi pitää.
Sanidāna Sutta (SN 14.12) - parannettu käännös
    Ihana selitys siitä, miten käsitykset muuttuvat tekoiksi, jotka valaisevat edelleen loistokkaan taskulamman simulointia. Jatka huolellisesti harkitsemaan epämiellyttäviä ajatuksia!
Āṇi Sutta (SN 20.7) - sanaan sana
    Buddha
muistuttaa meitä erittäin tärkeästä asiasta: omien hyödyksiemme ja
vielä tulevien sukupolvien hyväksi meidän on annettava ensiarvoisen
tärkeä omille todellisille sanoilleen, eikä niinkään kaikille, jotka
muukin tekevät nykyään tai on teeskenteli menneisyydessä olevan oikea (Dhamma) opettaja.
Samādhi Sutta (SN 22.5) - sana sanalla
    Buddha kehottaa seuraajiaan kehittämään keskittymiskykyä, jotta he
voivat harjoittaa käsitystä viiden kiviaineksen syntymisestä ja
kulkeutumisesta, minkä jälkeen hän määrittelee, mitä hän tarkoittaa
syntymällä ja siirtymällä aggregaattien riippuvaisen alkuperän suhteen.
Paṭisallāṇa Sutta (SN 22.6) - ilman käännöstä
    Buddha kehottaa seuraajiaan harjoittamaan syrjäytymistä, jotta he
voivat harjoittaa käsitystä viiden kiviaineksen syntymisestä ja
kulkeutumisesta, minkä jälkeen hän määrittelee, mitä hän tarkoittaa
syntymällä ja siirtymällä aggregaattien riippuvaisen alkuperän suhteen.
Upādāparitassanā Sutta (SN 22.8) - sanatarkkuus
    Kärsimyksen syntyminen ja lopettaminen tapahtuu viidessä aggregaatissa.
Nandikkhaya Sutta (SN 22.51) - sana sana
    Kuinka käyttää ilon hävittämistä.
Anattalakkhana Sutta (SN 22.59) - sana sana
    Tässä erittäin kuuluisa sutta, Buddha esittelee ensimmäistä kertaa hänen opetustaan anatalla.
Khajjanīya Sutta (SN 22.79) {uloste} - sana sana
    Tämä sutta on lyhyt määritelmä viidestä khandasta.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 29.1) - parannettu käännös
    Erilaiset nāgas-tyypit.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 30.1) - parannettu käännös
    Eri tyyppisiä supaṇaaneja (aka garudas).
Suddhika Sutta (SN 31.1) - parannettu käännös
    Eri tyyppisiä gandhabba devas.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 32.1) - parannettu käännös
    Eri tyyppiset pilvi devas.
Samāpattimūkapadhiti Sutta (SN 34.11) - parannettu käännös
    Pitoisuuden saavuttaminen pitoisuuden ylläpitämiseksi.
Pubbesambodha Sutta (SN 35.13) - sana sana
    Buddha määrittää, mitä hän tarkoittaa viettellyllä, haittapuolilla ja
emansipaatiolla sisäisen järkeilypiirien tapauksessa, ja julistaa, että
hänen heräämisensä ei ole mitään muuta tai vähemmän kuin ymmärrystä.
Abhinanda Sutta (SN 35.20) - sanatarkkuus
    Ei ole mitään paeta, joka ihastuu mielessä oleviin esineisiin.
Migajāla Sutta (SN 35.46) - parannettu käännös
    Miksi todellinen yksinäisyys on niin vaikea löytää? Buddha selittää, mistä tahansa, mistä tahansa, ärsyttävät kumppanit merkitsevät aina.
Avijjāpahāna Sutta (SN 35.53) - sanatarkkuus
    Hyvin yksinkertainen keskustelu, vielä ve
Sabbupādānapariññā Sutta (SN 35.60) - sana sana
    Buddha, joka kertoo täydellisen ymmärryksen kaikista kiinnostuksesta,
antaa syvän ja silti selkeän selityksen: yhteys syntyy kolmen ilmiön
perusteella.
Migajāla Sutta Sutta (SN 35.64) {uloste} - sana sana
    Jotkut
neofytit (ja voimme usein laskea itsemme keskuudessamme) toisinaan
haluavat uskoa, että on mahdollista nauttia aistillisista nautinnoista
ilman, että syntyy kiinnittymistä tai kärsimystä. Buddha opettaa Migajālaa, että tämä on täysin mahdotonta.
Adantāgutta Sutta (SN 35.94) - sana sana
    Tässä
on yksi neuvoista, jotka ovat niin helposti ymmärrettäviä älyllisesti,
mutta silti niin vaikeasti ymmärrettäviä syvemmällä tasolla, koska
väärät näkemämme jatkuvasti häiritsevät prosessia. Siksi meidän on saatava se toistuvasti, vaikka se saattaa tuntua tylsältä.
Pamādavihārī Sutta (SN 35.97) - sanatarkkuus
    Mikä tekee eron miestä, joka elää laiminlyönnistä ja joka valvoo elämää.
Sakkapañhā Sutta Sutta (SN 35.118) - sana sana
    Buddha antaa melko yksinkertaisen vastauksen Sakin kysymykseen: mistä
syystä jotkut ihmiset saavuttavat lopullisen tavoitteen, kun taas toiset
eivät?
Rūpārāma Sutta (SN 35.137) - sana sanalla
    Buddha selittää meille vielä kerran, vielä toisella tavalla, syyn ja kärsimyksen lopettamisen. Se tapahtuu keskellä mitä me jatkamme koko päivän ja koko yön ajan.
Aniccanibbānasappāya Sutta (SN 35.147) - sana sana
    Tässä on hardcore vipassanā käskyjä, jotka käsittelevät pitkälle
menevien meditaattoreiden epäjatkuvuutta, jotka odottavat saavansa
Nibbānaa.
Ajjhattānattahetu Sutta (SN 35.142) - sana sana
    Miten tutkia järjes- tyselinten aiheuttamia syitä, joiden itsensä
ominaispiirteet ovat helpommin ymmärrettävissä, mahdollistaa tämän
ymmärryksen siirtämisen heidän tapauksessaan.
Samudda Sutta (SN 35.229) - parannettu käännös
    Mikä valta valtaistuimilla on. Varo, ettei se upoteta siihen!
Pahāna Sutta (SN 36.3) - parannettu käännös
    Vedanan kolmen tyypin ja kolmen anusajan välinen suhde.
Daṭṭhabba Sutta (SN 36.5) - parannettu käännös
    Kuinka kolme vedanānaa (tunteet) pitäisi nähdä.
Salla Sutta (SN 36.6) - parannettu käännös
    Kun
fyysisen kipua nuolella ammuttu, viisas henkilö tekee pahimmista
asioista pahentamalla henkistä ahdistusta sen päälle, aivan kuin jos hän
olisi ammuttu kahdella nuolella. Viisas tuntee yhden nuolen pistelyn yksin.
Anicca Sutta (SN 36.9) - parannettu käännös
    Seitsemän vedanan ominaisuutta (tunteet), joita sovelletaan myös
muihin neljäs khandhas (SN 22.21) ja kummankin kahdeksatoista pašticca
samuppāda -linkkiä (SN 12.20).
Phassamūlaka Sutta (SN 36.10) - sana sana
    Kolmen tyyppiset tunteet ovat juurtuneet kolmeen kontaktiin.
Aṭṭhasata Sutta (SN 36.22) - parannettu käännös
    Buddha esittelee vedanat seitsemällä eri tavalla, analysoimalla ne
kahteen, kolmeen, viiteen, kuusi, kahdeksantoista, kolmekymmentäkuusi
tai sadan kahdeksan luokkaan.
Nirāmisa Sutta (SN 36.31) {uloste} - sana sana
    Voimme ymmärtää täällä, että piti, vaikka se on usein merkitty bojjhaṅgaksi, voi myös joskus olla akusala. Tämä kohta sisältää myös viiden kāmaguṇan määritelmän.
Dhammavādīpañhā Sutta (SN 38.3) - parannettu käännös
    Kuka tukee Dhammaa maailmassa (dhamma · vādī)? Kuka toimii hyvin (su · p · paṭipanna)? Kuka kauhistuu hyvin (sugaata)?
Dukkara Sutta (SN 39.16) - parannettu käännös
    Mitä on vaikea tehdä tässä opetuksessa ja kurissa?
Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 45.8) - sana sana
    Tässä Buddha määrittelee tarkalleen jokaisen kahdeksankertaisen jaloisen polun tekijän.
Āgantuka Sutta (SN 45.159) - parannettu käännös
    Miten Noble Path toimii abhiññā kanssa, joka liittyy erilaisiin dhammas-guesthouseen, joka toivottaa vieraat tervetulleiksi.
Kusala Sutta (SN 46.32) - sana sana
    Kaikki tämä on edullista yhdistää yhteen asiaan.
Āhāra Sutta (SN 46.51) - parannettu käännös
    Buddha kertoo, kuinka voimme joko “ruokkia” tai “nältää” valaistumisen
esteitä ja tekijöitä sen mukaisesti, kuinka me sovellamme huomiomme.
Saṅgārava Sutta (SN 46.55) {ulkoinen} - parannettu käännös
    Kaunis sarja similejejä selittää, kuinka viisi nīvaraṇaa (esteet)
vaikuttavat mielen puhtauteen ja sen kykyyn nähdä todellisuus sellaisena
kuin se on.
Sati Sutta (SN 47.35) - sana sana
    Tässä suttassa Buddha muistuttaa bhikkhusta satos ja sampajānos ja määritelee sitten nämä kaksi termiä.
Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 47.40) - sana sana
    Satipaṭṭhānas opetti lyhyesti.
Daṭṭhabba Sutta (SN 48.8) - parannettu käännös
    Jokainen viidestä henkisestä indriasta sanotaan näkevän nelinkertaisessa dhammassa.
Saṃkhitta Sutta (SN 48.14) - parannettu käännös
    Meidän on täytettävä ne, ja meidän on tehtävä tämä vapaus.
Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 48.38) - parannettu käännös
    Tässä Buddha määrittelee viisi herkkiä indriyykia.
Uppaṭipāṭika Sutta (SN 48.40)

—— ooooooo ——

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/anguttara.html
Aṅguttara Nikāya
- Yksi lisäkerroin -
[aṅg: tekijä | uttara: lisä]

Aṅguttara Nikāya sisältää tuhansia lyhyitä puheenaiheita, joiden erityispiirteet on jäsennettävä numeroina. Se
on jaettu yhdentoista osaan, joista ensimmäinen käsittelee jonkin
kohteen numerointia, toinen ja kahden esineen jne. Buddha ei ole koskaan
käyttänyt kirjallisuutta, vaan pyysi kuuntelijoita olemaan
tarkkaavaisia ja opettelemaan ohjeitaan. Jotta hänen sanansa olisi mahdollisimman selkeä ja helpottaisi tätä
muistiota, hän usein esitteli opetustaan numeroiden muodossa.

—— ooooooo ——
1. Ekaka Nipāta

Rūpādi Vagga (AN 1.1-10) - sanasta sanaan
    Viisi tyyppistä järjettömiä esineitä, jotka ylittävät (eniten) ihmisten mielen enemmän kuin mikään muu.
Nīvaraṇappahāna Vagga (AN 1.11-20) - sana sana
    Viisi dhammia, jotka ravitsevat tehokkaimmin viisi estettä ja viisi tehokkainta tapaa poistaa ne.
Akammaniya Vagga (AN 1.21-30) - sanasta sanaan
    Mieli voi olla pahin vihollisemme tai paras ystävä.
Adanta Vagga (AN 1.31-40) - parannettu käännös
    Mieli voi olla pahin vihollisemme tai paras ystävä.

Udakarahaka Suttas (AN 1.45 & 46) - parannettu käännös
    Selvä mielen ja mutaisen välinen ero.
Mudu Sutta (AN 1.47) - parannettu käännös
    Mielikuva mieleen, joka on kelvollinen.
Lahuparivatta Sutta (AN 1.48) - parannettu käännös
    Buddha, joka on tavallisesti niin taitava etsiessään yhtälöitä, on täällä menettämässä.
Accharāsaṅghāta Peyyāla (AN 1.53-55) - sanan sana
    Hyväntaidon harjoittaminen tekee lahjojen arvosta.
Kusala Suttas (AN 1.56-73) - sana sana
    Mikä tuottaa ja mikä poistaa terveellisiä ja epämiellyttäviä henkisiä tiloja.
Pamāda Suttas (AN 1.58-59) - parannettu käännös
    Mikään ei ole niin epäedullista kuin tämä.
Pamādādi Vagga (AN 1.81-97) - sana sana
    Buddha varoittaa meitä toistuvasti varovaisuudesta.
Kāyagatāsati Vagga (AN 1.563-574) {osiot} - parannettu käännös
    Buddha puhuu runsaasti kiitosta keholle suunnatusta tietoisuudesta.

—— ooooooo ——

2. Duka Nipāta

Appaṭivāna Sutta (AN 2.5) - parannettu käännös
    Miten meidän pitäisi kouluttaa itseämme, jos haluamme saavuttaa heräämisen.
Cariya Sutta (AN 2.9) - parannettu käännös
    Mikä se loppujen lopuksi takaa harmoniaa, kohteliaisuutta, rehellisyyttä, veljeyttä sanalla rauhan tiettynä yhteiskunnassa? Buddha selittää täällä, jotka ovat maailman kaksi vartijaa.
Ekaṃsena Sutta (AN 2.18) - parannettu käännös
    Tässä on yksi asia, jonka Buddha julistaa kategorisesti.
Vijjābhāgiya Sutta (AN 2.32) - sanasta sanaan
    Tässä Buddha kertoo Samatasta rāgalla ja cetovimutilla, ja Vipassanā avijjā ja paññāvimutti.

—— ooooooo ——

3. Tika Nipāta

Kesamutti [aka Kālāmā] Sutta (AN 3,66) - sanan sana
    Tässä kuuluisassa sapussa Buddha muistuttaa meitä lopultakin
luottamasta vain omaa suoraa kokemusta todellisuudesta, ei mitä on
julistettu muilta, vaikka he sattuvat olemaan “kunnioitettu
opettajamme”.
Sāḷha Sutta (AN 3.67) - parannettu käännös
    Tässä annetut ohjeet ovat hyvin samankaltaisia kuin Kalamasille annetut ohjeet.
Aññatitthiya Sutta (AN 3.69) - parannettu käännös
    Työkyvyttömien kolmen juuren selitetään heidän kunnioitettavan
ominaisuutensa, niiden aiheuttaman syyn ja tapaan, jolla he voivat
lopettaa toimintansa.
Uposatha Sutta (AN 3.71) - parannettu käännös
    Tässä suttassa Buddha määrittelee, kuinka maallikot käyttävät Uposathaa ja kuvaavat erilaisten devojen tyyppejä.
Sīlabbata Sutta (AN 3.79) - parannettu käännös
    Ānanda selittää, millä hyvin yksinkertaisilla kreteriariteillä ja rituaaleilla voidaan katsoa olevan hyötyä vai ei.
Samaṇa Sutta (AN 3.82) - parannettu käännös
    Tässä ovat askettin kolme askettista tehtävää.
Vajjiputta Sutta (AN 3.85) - parannettu käännös
    Tietty munkki ei voi kouluttaa niin monta sääntöä. Buddha selittää hänelle, miten hän voi tehdä ilman heitä, ja se toimii melko hyvin.
Sikkhattaya Sutta (AN 3.90) - sanasta sanaan
    Buddha määrittelee kolme koulutusta eli adhisīlasikkhā, adhicittasikkhā ja adhipaññāsikkhā.
Accāyika Sutta (AN 3.93) - parannettu käännös
    Kolme aseetusta kiireellistä tehtävää, jotka ovat kuin viljelijän kolme kiireellistä tehtävää.
Sikkhattaya Sutta (AN 3.91) - sana sanasta
    Tässä Buddha antaa vaihtoehtoisen määritelmän adhipaññāsikkhā.
Paṃsudhovaka Sutta (AN 3.102) - harvat tiedot · kuplat
    Tässä sapissa Buddha vertailee henkisten epäpuhtauksien poistamista käytännön avulla kultaseppien työhön. Se on erityisen mielenkiintoinen, koska se antaa asteittaisen
käsityksen epäpuhtauksista, joita on käsiteltävä käytännön aikana, mikä
antaa hyödyllisen viitteen.
Nimitta Sutta (AN 3.103) - harvat tiedot · kuplat
    Pidätkö itsesi silmiinpistävänä tai liiallisena agitaationa meditaatiokäytäntönne aikana? Tämä
on erittäin hyödyllinen keskustelu meditaattoreille, jotka haluavat
tasapainottaa kahden vastaavan hengellisen osaamisen ja keskittymiskyvyn
sekä tasapainoisuuden. Monet meistä hyötyisivät merkittävästi näiden ohjeiden asianmukaisesta soveltamisesta.
Ruṇṇa Sutta (AN 3.108) - sanatarkkuus
    Tässä Buddha selittää, mitä laulaa ja tansselee jaloissa, ja antaa sitten hänen kehotuksensa nauraen ja hymyilemisen suhteen.
Atitti Sutta (AN 3.109) - parannettu käännös
    Kolme väärää asiaa, joista monet ovat valitettavasti ihastuneita, jotka eivät voi koskaan saada aikaan kylläisyyttä.
Nidāna Sutta (AN 3.112) - parannettu käännös
    Kuuma syitä, kolme terveellistä ja kolme epämiellyttävää, kamman syntymiseen.
Kammapatha Sutta (AN 3.164) - sanasta sanaan
    Tässä on osoitettu, että näkemys, jonka mukaan ei ole mitään väärää olla ei-kasvissyöjä, on virheellinen.

—— ooooooo ——

4. Catukka Nipāta

Jooga Sutta (AN 4.10) - parannettu käännös
    Mitä Buddha tarkoittaa, kun hän puhuu joogasta ja yogakkhemasta (levätä ikeestä).
Padhāna Sutta (AN 4.13) - sana sana
    Tässä sapissa Buddha määrittelee sammappadhānaksen.
Aparihāniya Sutta (AN 4.37) - parannettu käännös
    Neljä yksinkertaista käytäntöä, jotka tekevät yhdestä kykenemättömän kaatua, aivan Nibbanan läsnäollessa.
Aparihāniya Sutta (AN 4.37) - parannettu käännös
    Neljä yksinkertaista käytäntöä, jotka tekevät yhdestä kykenemättömän kaatua, aivan Nibbanan läsnäollessa.
Samādhibhāvanā Sutta (AN 4.41) - sana sanalla
    Buddhan kiitokset neljästä keskittymistyypistä. Tässä on varsin ilmeistä, että samādhi ja paññā välillä ei ole selkeää eroa.
Vipallāsa Sutta (AN 4.49) - sana sana
    Tässä sapissa Buddha kuvailee saññā, citta ja diṭṭhin nelinkertaista säröä.
Appamāda Sutta (AN 4.116) - yksinkertainen käännös
    Neljä tapausta, joissa joudutaan harjoittamaan itsevarmuutta.
Ārakkha Sutta (AN 4.117) - yksinkertainen käännös
    Neljä asiaa, jotka on toteutettava tiukasti, huomaavasti ja samalla suojattava mieli.
Mettā Sutta (AN 4.125) - parannettu käännös
    Tässä Buddha selittää, millaista uudelleensyntymistä yksi, joka
harjoittaa perusteellisesti neljää Brahmavihāraa, ja suuri etu siitä,
että hän on hänen opetuslapsensa.
Asubha Sutta (AN 4.163) - parannettu käännös
    Neljä tapaa harjoitella valittujen käytäntöjen mukaan ja vahvuuksien ja henkisten ongelmien voimakkuuden tai heikkouden mukaan.
Abhiññà Sutta (AN 4.254) - ilman käännöstä
    Miten Noble Path toimii abhiññā kanssa, joka liittyy erilaisiin dhammas-guesthouseen, joka toivottaa vieraat tervetulleiksi.
Arañña Sutta (AN 4.262) - parannettu käännös
    Millainen ihminen on sopiva elää erämaassa?

—— ooooooo ——

5. Pañcaka Nipāta

Vitthata Sutta (AN 5.2) - ilman käännöstä
    Tässä Buddha määrittelee yksityiskohtaisesti, mitä hän kutsuu viisi Sekha-balaksia (yhden koulutuksen harjoittelua). Tämä
sutta on helposti ymmärrettävissä ilman, että tarvitaan rinnakkaista
käännöstä, jos viitataan Satta saddhammā-kaavoihin, kuten tekstissä
ehdotetaan. Pali-englanninkielinen sanakirja on myös saatavilla vain siinä tapauksessa.
Vitthata Sutta (AN 5.14) - sana sana
    Tässä määritellään viisi balasta.
Samādhi Sutta (AN 5.27) - parannettu käännös
    Viisi ylösnousevaa tietämystä, jotka tapahtuvat sellaiselle, joka harjoittaa rajatonta keskittymistä.
Akusalarāsi Sutta (AN 5.52) - parannettu käännös
    Puhuen oikeutetusti, mitä kutsutaan “epäonnistumisen kertymiseksi”?
Abhiṇhapaccavekkhitabbaṭhāna Sutta (AN 5.57) {uloste} - sana sana
    Kuinka tarkastella omaa kammaasi.
Anāgatabhaya Sutta (AN 5.80) - parannettu käännös
    Buddha muistuttaa munkkeja siitä, että Dhamman käytäntöä ei tule
lykätä myöhempään ajankohtaan, sillä ei ole takeita siitä, että
tulevaisuudessa tarjotaan mahdollisuuksia käytäntöön.
Sekha Sutta (AN 5.89) - ilman käännöstä
    Buddha muistuttaa meitä viidestä asiasta, jotka heikentävät käytäntöä,
sillä jokaiselle, joka haluaa edetä koulutuksessa, on lähes yhtä
tärkeää tietää, muistaa ja integroida elämäntapojemme viiden standardin
nīvaraṇan tuntemukseksi.
Sekha Sutta (AN 5.90) - parannettu käännös
    Viisi asenteita, jotka johtavat käytännön heikentymiseen.
Sutadhara Sutta (AN 5.96) - parannettu käännös
    Viisi ominaisuutta johtaa joka harjoittaa hengellistä hengellistä vapautumista pitkäksi ajaksi.
Kathā Sutta (AN 5.97) - parannettu käännös
    Viisi ominaisuutta johtaa joka harjoittaa hengellistä hengellistä vapautumista pitkäksi ajaksi.
Āraññaka Sutta (AN 5.98) - parannettu käännös
    Viisi ominaisuutta johtaa joka harjoittaa hengellistä hengellistä vapautumista pitkäksi ajaksi.
Andhakavinda Sutta (AN 5.114) - parannettu käännös
    Viisi asiaa, jotka Buddha pyysi hänen äskettäin ansaittujen munkkiensa tekemään.
Samayavimutta Sutta (AN 5.149) - ilman käännöstä
    Viisi olosuhdetta, joiden vallitessa “satunnaista vapautusta” saanut taaksepäin.
Samayavimutta Sutta (AN 5.150) - ilman käännöstä
    Toinen viiden olosuhteen joukko, jonka mukaan jokainen, joka on saanut “satunnaisen vapautuksen”, luopuu.
Vaṇijjā Sutta (AN 5.177) - parannettu käännös
    Buddha määrittelee täältä viisi kauppaa, joita ei hänen kannattajansa, mukaan lukien lihan, pitäisi harjoittaa.
Gihī Sutta (AN 5.179) - parannettu käännös
    Tässä suttassa Buddha antaa tarkemman käsityksen siitä, miten neljä
tavallista sotāpattiyaṅgaa on sisäistettävä siten, että ne muodostavat
oikeat olosuhteet sotāpatille.
Nissāraṇīya Sutta (AN 5.200) - parannettu käännös
    Tämä sutta laskee viisi erilaista nissāraṇaa.
Yāgu Sutta (AN 5.207) - parannettu käännös
    Buddha antaa viisi etua riisiviinien syömisestä.
Dantakaṭṭha Sutta (AN 5.208) - parannettu käännös
    Buddha antaa viisi syytä käyttää hammaspuhdistinta.
Gītassara Sutta (AN 5.209) - sanatarkkuus
    Buddhalaiset perinteet ovat suurelta osin jättäneet huomiotta tämän
sutta: Buddha selittää, miksi hän ei salli bhikkhuksen suorittaa mitään
melodista laulua.
Muṭṭhassati Sutta (AN 5.210) - parannettu käännös
    Haittojen nukahtaminen ilman asianmukaista sati ja sampajañña sekä niiden edut sen suhteen.
Duccarita Sutta (AN 5.245) - parannettu käännös
    Toinen sutta, joka liittyy duckarita-viiden vaaran ja sucarita-viiden edun.
Sivathika Sutta (AN 5.249) - parannettu käännös
    Viisi tapaa, jolla huonosti johdettu henkilö voi olla samankaltainen kuin lohikäärme, jossa ihmiset heittävät kuolleet ruumiit.
Puggalappasāda Sutta (AN 5.250) - parannettu käännös
    Tässä on harvinainen varoitus, jonka Buddha on antanut siitä, että hän voi luottaa johonkin.
Rāgassa abhiññāya Sutta (AN 5.303) - parannettu käännös
    Viisi asiaa, joita voidaan harjoittaa suoran rāgan tuntemuksen suhteen.

—— ooooooo ——

6. Chakka Nipāta

Bhaddaka Sutta (AN 6.14) - vähän tietoa · kuplia
    Sāriputta selittää, mikä tekee eron bhikkhu, jonka kuolema on epäilyttävä ja jonka kuolema on lupaava.
Anutappiya Sutta (AN 6.15) - vähän tietoa · kuplia
    Sāriputta selittää, mikä tekee eron bhikkhuista, jonka kuolema on katuva ja yksi, jonka kuolema on rauhaa.
Maraṇassati Sutta (AN 6.20) - parannettu käännös
    Tämä sutta selittää yksityiskohtaisesti, miten harjoittaa kuolemaa.
Sāmaka Sutta (AN 6.21) - harvat tiedot · kuplat
    Devan väliintulon myötä Buddha paljastaa kuusi ikuista tapaa, jolla bhikkhus heikkenee kusala dhammasissa.
Aparihāniya Sutta (AN 6.22) - harvat tiedot · kuplat
    Kuusi dhammaa yhdistettynä heikkenemiseen. Toinen joukko erittäin hyödyllisiä dhammoja mielenkiintoisille harjoittajille.
Himavanta Sutta (AN 6.24) - parannettu käännös
    Kuusi ominaisuutta, joita ei ole tehty, joiden avulla meditaattori kuulee Himalajan osaksi kappaletta.
Anussatiṭṭhāna Sutta (AN 6.25) - parannettu käännös
    Tämä sutta määrittää, mitkä ovat kuuden aineiston muistoksi.
Sekha Sutta (AN 6,31) - ilman käännöstä
    Buddha selittää, mitkä ovat kuusi dhammia, jotka johtavat harjoittelun bhikkhun heikkenemiseen.
Nāgita Sutta (AN 6.42) - parannettu käännös
    Kun asuu metsässä, Buddha puhuu kiitosta vaatimattomuudesta, tyytyydestä, tyytymättömyydestä ja eristyneisyydestä erämaassa.
Dhammika Sutta (AN 6.54) - tavalliset tekstit
    Tässä suttassa sanaa tathāgata ei ole tarkoitettu Buddhan nimeämiseen
vaan järkevään sanaan, mikä antaa meille paremman käsityksen sen
merkityksestä.
Nibbedhika Sutta (AN 6.63) - tavalliset tekstit
    Tämä sutta on mielenkiintoinen järjestelmällinen analyysi Kāma, Vedanā, Saññā, Āsavā, Kamma ja Dukkha. Kukin näistä termeistä on määritelty ja kuvattu sitten neljän ariya-saccan mallina.
Anavatthitā Sutta (AN 6.102) - parannettu käännös
    Kuusi palkkiota, joiden pitäisi toimia motivoituna aniksen käsityksen määrittämiseen.
Atammaya Sutta (AN 6.104) - parannettu käännös
    Kuusi palkkiota, joiden pitäisi toimia motivaatiota anatan käsityksen määrittelemiseksi.
Assāda Sutta (AN 6.112) - parannettu käännös
    Kuinka poista nautintoa, näkemystä itsestä ja väärä näkemys yleisesti.
Dhammānupassī Sutta (AN 6.118) - sanatarkkuus
    On syytä toistaa tämän suttan sanoma: kuusi tapaa luopumatta siitä, mitä satipaṭṭhānaksen ei ole mahdollista harjoittaa oikein. Melko puhdistus voi olla suositeltavaa tässä.

—— ooooooo ——

7. Sattaka Nipāta

Anusaya Sutta (AN 7.11) - tavalliset tekstit
    Tässä luetellaan seitsemän anusaijaa.
Anusaya Sutta (AN 7.12) - parannettu käännös
    Kun hylättiin seitsemän anusaya (pakkomielle tai piilevä taipumus).
Saññā Sutta (AN 7.27) - parannettu käännös
    Seitsemän käsitystä, jotka johtavat bhikkhuksen pitkäaikaiseen hyvinvointiin ja estävät sen heikkenemisen.
Parihāni Sutta (AN 7.28) - parannettu käännös
    Seitsemän pistettä, joilla harjoittelun bhikkhu voi heikentää tai ei.
Parihāni Sutta (AN 7.29) - parannettu käännös
    Seitsemän käyttäytymiskoetta, joihin maallikkosaaja voi heikentää tai ei.
Vipatti Sutta (AN 7.30) - parannettu käännös
    Seitsemän käyttäytymisnäkemystä, joihin maallikkosaaja saattaa joutua epäonnistumaan tai menestymään.
Parābhava Sutta (AN 7.31) - parannettu käännös
    Seitsemän käyttäytymispaikkaa, joihin maallikkosaaja voi tavata hänen rauniot tai hyvinvointinsa.
Saññā Sutta (AN 7.49) - parannettu käännös
    Seitsemän sisäistä heijastusta, jotka kannattaa jatkaa.
Nagaropama Sutta (AN 7.67) - tavallisia tekstejä Pali-kaavojen kanssa
    Tässä Buddha käyttää valaisevaa muotoilua selvittääkseen seitsemän
hyvää ominaisuutta, jotka harjoittelijan tulisi hallita, jotta he
voisivat onnistua yhdessä estääkseen Māra-joukot (eli akusala dhammas)
pääsemästä mielen linnoitukseen.
Satthusāsana Sutta (AN 7.83) - sanatarkkuus
    Tässä on erittäin tiivis seitsemänkertainen käskys erottamaan mitä Buddhan opetus ei ole.

—— ooooooo ——
8. Aṭṭhaka Nipāta

Nanda Sutta (AN 8.9) {uloste} - sana sana
    Buddha
kuvailee, kuinka Nanda, vaikka hän on saalistunut kovaa mielihyvästä,
harjoittaa käytäntönsä hänen ohjeidensa mukaisesti. Tämä sutta sisältää määritelmän satisampajañña.
Mahānāma Sutta (AN 8.25) {uloste} - sana sana
    Mahānāma pyytää Buddhaa määrittelemään, mikä on maallikkosaaja ja
missä suhteessa maallikkovelvollisen odotetaan olevan hyveellinen.
Anuruddhamahāvitakka Sutta (AN 8.30) - harvat tiedot · kuplat
    Seitsemän viisasta ajatusta, jotka ovat todellakin ymmärrystä ja muistelemista, tulevat tapahtumaan. Anuruddha. Buddha tulee hänen puoleensa opettamaan hänelle kahdeksannen, jolla hänellä on arahantship. Buddha selittää yksityiskohtaisesti näiden ajatusten merkityksen.
Abhisanda Sutta (AN 8.39) - parannettu käännös
    Tässä on kahdeksan tapaa, joilla kaikki vakavat Buddhan opetuslapset luovat paljon ansioita itselleen.
Duccaritavipāka Sutta (AN 8.40) - harvat tiedot · kuplat
    Tämä sutta kuvaa sellaista kärsimystä, jota yksi kärsii, koska tärkeimmät käskyt eivät noudata.
Saṅkhitta Sutta (AN 8.53) - sanan sana
    Buddha antaa tälle vanhemmalle sairaanhoidolleen kahdeksan kriteeriä
erottaakseen, onko jokin lausunto hänen opetuksensa tai ei, mikä saattaa
olla kätevä nykyään.
Dīghajāṇu Sutta (AN 8.54) {leikkaus} - tavalliset tekstit
    Buddha määrittelee muun muassa tämän suttan, mitä hän tarkoittaa anteliaisuudella.
Vimokkha Sutta (AN 8.66) - parannettu käännös
    Selitys kahdeksasta vimokkasta (vapautukset).
Parihāna Sutta (AN 8.79) - ilman käännöstä
    Buddha selittää, mitkä ovat kahdeksan dhammia, jotka johtavat harjoittelun bhikkhun heikentymiseen.

—— ooooooo ——

9. Navaka Nipāta

Nāga Sutta (AN 9.40) - tavalliset tekstit
    Tämä sävy, joka on väriltään hienovaraisella huumorilla, selittää,
kuinka suuren mielen bhikkhu on verrattavissa yksinäiseen elefanttiin,
jota molempia kutsutaan yleensä Nāgaksi.
Tapussa Sutta (AN 9.41) {uloste} - tavalliset tekstit
    Tässä saññā · vedayita · nirodha, saññā ja vedanān lopettaminen esitetään yhdeksännessä jhāna.
Sikkhādubbalya Sutta (AN 9.63) - sana sana
    Mitä tehdä, jos yksi ei ole vielä täydellinen viidessä käskyssä.
Nīvaraṇa Sutta (AN 9.64) - sana sana
    Kuinka poistaa viisi esteitä.

—— ooooooo ——

10. Dasaka Nipāta

Saṃyojana Sutta (AN 10.13) - tavallisia tekstejä
    Tämä hyvin lyhyt sutta luetelee kymmenen saṃyojanaa.
Kasiṇa Sutta (AN 10.25) - sanasta sanaan
    Tämä on tavallisen kuvauksen kymmenestä kasiinista käytännöstä.
Girimānanda Sutta (AN 10.60) - parannettu käännös
    Jotta voitaisiin auttaa Girimānandaa toipumassa vakavasta sairaudesta,
Buddha antaa suuren opetuksen, jossa tarkastellaan kymmenen erilaista
erittäin hyödyllistä käsitystä, jota voidaan kehittää.
Kathāvatthu Sutta (AN 10.69) {uloste} - tavalliset tekstit
    Buddha muistuttaa bhikkhusta, mistä he eivät saa puhua ja mistä heidän pitäisi puhua.
Cunda Sutta (AN 10.176) - jotain tietoa · kuplia
    Buddha selittää puhtauden syvyyden, kāya, vācā ja manan, ei
rituaaleissa tai rituaaleissa, ja osoittaa, että ensimmäinen on
jälkimmäinen, jonka tehottomuus on ilmeinen.

—— ooooooo ——

11. Ekādasaka Nipāta

30/03/2555
Mettā Sutta (AN 11.15) - harvat tiedot · kuplat
Yksitoista hyvää tulosta, jotka tulevat ulos mettān käytännöstä.

—— ooooooo ——

https://thewire.in/media/zee-news-hindutva-communal-agenda
Civil Servant Files Complaint Against Zee Hindustan for Pushing Communal Agenda

Prabuddha Bharath just 0.1% intolerant, cunning, crooked, number one
terrorists of the world, violent, militant, ever shooting, lynching,
lunatic, mentally retarded Bene Israeli Paradesi chitpavan brahmin RSS (
Rowdy Rakshasa Swayam Sevaks) along with its other avathars the Visha
Hindutva Psychopaths (VHP), Bajan Dal, ABVP (All Brahmin Visha
Psychopaths) and other instant mushrooming avathars have ‘Prabuddha
Bharat ko sharvanas karne laga‘ and ‘Prabuddha Bharath Zindabad‘.

The Murderers of democratic institutions (Modi) gobbled the Master Key
by tampering the fraud EVMs and won elections for the BJP (Brashtachar
Jiyadha Psychopaths) and become emboldened to implement their manusmriti
agenda that believes the chitpavan brahmins as 1st rate athmas (souls),
kashatrias, vysias, shudras as 2nd, 3rd, 4th rate souls and the 99.9
sarvajan samaj including SC/STs/OBcs/ Converted Religious Minorities who
are the aboriginal inhabitants of Prabuddha Bharat as having no soul at
all so that all sorts of atrocities are inflicted on them.

The
ex CJI Sathasivam had committed a grave error of judgement by ordering
that the EVMs could be replaced in a phased manner after it was clearly
proved that they could be tampered to win elections. The very fact that
the EVMs have to be replaced itself is a clear proof that they could be
tampered. The CJI never ordered to use Ballot Papers till the entire
EVMs were replaced. The suggestion to replace in a phased manner was
done by the ex CEC Sampath because of the cost of Rs1600 crore at that
time to replace the entire EVMs. Now Modi says it will cost more that Rs
5000 crore and hence the EVMs are continued to be used in all the
elections which is advantageous to the BJP. The EVMs are tampered in
such a way that the voters are fooled as in some cases other parties are
made to win.

Who are these Paradesi chitpavan brahmin chaps
chanting slogans for the stealth, shadowy, discriminatory hindutva cult
full of hatred, anger, jealousy, delusion whicj are defilement of the
mind requiring mental treatment in mental asylums
Police have
registered an FIR, must probe these Paradesis Identify, interrogate
& punish these elements by treating them in mental asylums with
Insight Meditation until they are cured of their madness.Otherwise it
could be something more sinister tomorrow.

First action on the
PRESSTITUTE media in name of hindustan have to be taken for aired a
discussion titled ‘जीता Musalman…अब Araria आतंकिस्तान?‘
(After
Muslim’s win, will Araria turn into a terror nation?). Wondering how the
news channel reached the ‘terror nation’ conclusion, which was used as a
tagline? while the RSS is itself the number one terrorists of the
world.

It will become a hub of terrorism Giriraj Singh had said
even before the video went viral must file complaint against the news
channel with News Broadcasting Standards Authority (NBSA).

NBSA is the self-regulatory complaints redressal body of the News
Broadcasters Association which represents private television news
channels.

It is aghast to see the blatant communal caption of the
programme. It was also negation of what the Constitution of India stands
for. There was clear prima facie case if violation of IPC sections,The Wire must initiate to propagate on such an issue.

“It is an extremely dangerous trend as media plays a very
important role in dissemination of news & information of people.
Once Napolean had said that “I can face two battalions but not two
scribes”It should warp the minds of the people which is having an
adverse impact on
the world society. There have been so many cases
of aggression & assault on SC/STs/OBCs and converted religious
minorities.

Civil Servant Files Complaint Against Zee Hindustan for Pushing Communal Agenda - The Wire

On
March 16, Zee Hindustan, a Hindi news channel run by the Zee Group,
aired a discussion titled ‘जीता Musalman…अब Araria आतंकिस्तान?’

thewire.in

Civil Servant Files Complaint Against Zee Hindustan for Pushing Communal Agenda

Karnika Kohli

Communalism

Media
16 hours ago

New Delhi:
A video of some alleged RJD supporters chanting anti-India slogans went
viral on social media after BJP’s loss in Araria by-poll election. The
men celebrating RJD MP Sarfaraz Alam’s victory can be seen chanting ‘Bharat Tere Tukde Honge‘ and ‘Pakistan Zindabad‘.

As expected, the video was picked up by news channels hoping to avoid
discussion on BJP’s loss in the elections and to perpetuate the ‘Hindus
are under threat in non-BJP states’ narrative.

The authenticity of the video has been questioned by politicians and
family members of the men shown in the video. The police, too, advised
the media against speculating till proper investigation is conducted.

The family members claim that the slogans were either in the
background or were superimposed. The video submitted as proof by the
families shows the three men shouting, “Katno kariyo baap baap, lalten chhaap (However hard opponents try, the RJD will win)”, reported Indian Express.

While the news channels did not attempt to authenticate the video, an investigation by AltNews.in raises a lot of questions.

On March 16, Zee Hindustan, a Hindi news channel run by the Zee Group, aired a discussion titled ‘जीता Musalman…अब Araria आतंकिस्तान?‘
(After Muslim’s win, will Araria turn into a terror nation?). While the
news anchor at multiple times during the discussion says that the
channel hasn’t been able to authenticate the video, but she doesn’t let
that stop her or the panelists from making wild assumptions.

Wondering how the news channel reached the ‘terror nation’ conclusion, which was used as a tagline?

Communalism

Media
16 hours ago

As expected, the video was picked up by news channels hoping to avoid
discussion on BJP’s loss in the elections and to perpetuate the ‘Hindus
are under threat in non-BJP states’ narrative.

While the news channels did not attempt to authenticate the video, an investigation by AltNews.in raises a lot of questions.

Wondering how the news channel reached the ‘terror nation’ conclusion, which was used as a tagline?

“Araria is not just a bordering area, connected to Nepal and Bengal…
(It is moving) to a hardline ideology, which is not just dangerous for
Bihar, but for the whole country. It will become a hub of terrorism,” Union minister Giriraj Singh had said even before the video went viral.

Ashish Joshi, who is a former nodal officer of Sachar Committee &
Prime Minister’s 15 Point Programme for Welfare of Minorities, filed a
complaint against the news channel with News Broadcasting Standards
Authority (NBSA) after receiving a screenshot of the video from a
friend.

NBSA is the self-regulatory complaints redressal body of the News
Broadcasters Association which represents private television news
channels.

“I was aghast to see the blatant communal caption of the
programme. It was also negation of what the Constitution of India stands
for. There was clear prima facie case if violation of IPC sections,” he
told The Wire.

“It is an extremely dangerous trend as media plays a very
important role in dissemination of news & information of people. It
is warping the minds of the people & is having an adverse impact on
the Indian society. There have been so many cases of aggression &
assault on minorities,” he added.

Ashish Joshi-NBSA mails by The Wire on Scribd

Upset with NBSA’s lax response to his complaint, Joshi said, “It is
sad to see law enforcing agencies & institutions like NBSA &
National Commission of Minorities (NCM) playing a passive role in taking
action against violators. As the former Nodal officer of Sachar
Committee & PM’s 15 Point Programme for Welfare of Minorities, I
feel sad to see negation of all the efforts we made. In any country, the
faith and confidence of the minorities in the functioning of the state
in an impartial manner is an acid test of its being a just state.”

When contacted by NewsLaundry, Zee Group’s Prasanna Raghav
claimed that the channel has not violated NBSA guidelines and threatened
to “file a defamation suit against the media watchdog”.

“All channels under ZMCL are responsible news channels and there is
no violation of NBSA guidelines in the said news report as alleged. The said news report was telecast on the basis of video which was available on social media.
Moreover, the police have also registered an FIR in the captioned
matter and comments from officer concerned also taken. The said video
has been sent to FSL by the Bihar Police. This is also to clarify that
in case any defamatory story on distorted or wrong facts, if carried by
Newslaundry, ZMCL shall be constrained to initiate appropriate legal
action against Newslaundry,” he said.

This isn’t the first time the Zee Group has gotten into trouble for pushing communal agenda. NBSA had directed Zee News to apologise to Urdu poet Gauhar Raza after they labeled him ‘anti-national’. The channel selectively broadcasted visuals of Raza reciting poetry at 51st Annual Shankar Shad Mushaira in a program called ‘Afzal premi gang ka mushaira’.

https://thewire.in/politics/facebook-to-votes-scandal-turns-spotlight-on-cambridge-analyticas-india-inroads

New
Delhi: The website of Cambridge Analytica – a controversial data
analytics and election strategy firm currently in the centre of a storm
for allegedly harvesting the personal data of nearly 50 million Facebook
users without their consent – states that its association with India
goes all the way back to the Bihar state assembly elections in 2010.

“CA
was contracted to undertake an in-depth electorate analysis for the
Bihar Assembly Election in 2010. The core challenge was to identify the
floating/swing voters for each of the parties and to measure their
levels electoral apathy, a result of the poor and unchanging condition
of the state after 15 years of incumbent rule,” its section on India
notes.

The voter research and
psychological profiling firm points out that its client (Janata Dal
United) achieved a “landslide victory, with “over 90% of total seats
targeted by CA” being won.

In the 2010
election, the JD(U), which was already in power in Bihar, increased its
seat tally from 88 to 115 in the 243-seat assembly. Its partner at the
time, increased its seats from 55 to 91.

The
only catch, however, is that Cambridge Analytica (CA) was officially
formed and created only in 2013 by its parent company, the London-based
Strategic Communications Laboratories (SCL) Group.

SCL’s
roots and work in India – from 2010, starting with the Bihar state
elections – came from an unlikely source: Amrish Tyagi, the son of
senior Janata Dal (United) leader K.C. Tyagi, who runs Ghaziabad-based
Ovlene Business Intelligence (OBI).

OBI is Cambridge Analytica’s go-to company on the ground in the Indian subcontinent.

https://thewire.in/politics/facebook-to-votes-scandal-turns-spotlight-on-cambridge-analyticas-india-inroads

Facebook-to-Votes Scandal Turns Spotlight on Cambridge Analytica’s India Inroads

For
new-age election strategy firms like CA, the digital footprints that
people leave behind while using social networks and mobile applications
are the secret to influencing voter behaviour.

What
do Nitish Kumar and Donald Trump have in common? They have both used
the data analysis tools of Cambridge Analytica and its affiliates to win
elections.

Anuj Srivas

POLITICS
1 DAY AGO

New Delhi:
The website of Cambridge Analytica – a controversial data analytics and
election strategy firm currently in the centre of a storm for allegedly
harvesting the personal data of nearly 50 million Facebook users
without their consent – states that its association with India goes all
the way back to the Bihar state assembly elections in 2010.

“CA
was contracted to undertake an in-depth electorate analysis for the
Bihar Assembly Election in 2010. The core challenge was to identify the
floating/swing voters for each of the parties and to measure their
levels electoral apathy, a result of the poor and unchanging condition
of the state after 15 years of incumbent rule,” its section on India notes.

The
voter research and psychological profiling firm points out that its
client (Janata Dal United) achieved a “landslide victory, with “over 90%
of total seats targeted by CA” being won.

In
the 2010 election, the JD(U), which was already in power in Bihar,
increased its seat tally from 88 to 115 in the 243-seat assembly. Its
partner at the time, increased its seats from 55 to 91.

The
only catch, however, is that Cambridge Analytica (CA) was officially
formed and created only in 2013 by its parent company, the London-based
Strategic Communications Laboratories (SCL) Group.

Amrish Tyagi of OBI, a partner organisation of Cambridge Analytica in India. Credit: Wikimedia

SCL’s
roots and work in India – from 2010, starting with the Bihar state
elections – came from an unlikely source: Amrish Tyagi, the son of
senior Janata Dal (United) leader K.C. Tyagi, who runs Ghaziabad-based
Ovlene Business Intelligence (OBI).

OBI is Cambridge Analytica’s go-to company on the ground in the Indian subcontinent.

“If
you are going to pitch any big client, they require experience. We can
use their experience, they can also use our experience. We collaborate
our expertise, there’s nothing wrong with that,” the 39-year-old Amrish
Tyagi told The Wire, when asked why CA listed the 2010 Bihar elections as part of its work portfolio when it clearly didn’t exist then.

“We complement each other’s services. From the ground-level, we conduct the data [sic] and we share with them,” Tyagi added.

Who are Tyagi and CA’s big clients on the horizon in India? According to multiple reports,
the firms could be looking to land the Congress and BJP and offer their
services for the upcoming 2019 general elections. OBI’s own website
already lists both parties as clients.

Nudging voters

Cambridge
Analytica and its parent firm, the SCL Group, are, to put it bluntly,
in the business of understanding and changing the behaviour of voters.

They claim that
by analysing huge amounts of user and consumer data – and combining it
with its secret sauce, a behavioural science model – they can “identify
the most persuadable voters” and “move them to action”.

Even before this weekend, the company’s role in the 2016 US election, which saw Donald Trump elected, and the Brexit vote has sparked controversy and attracted the intention of regulators and government officials across multiple countries.

For
new-age election strategy firms like CA, the digital footprints that
people leave behind while using social networks and mobile applications
are the secret to influencing voter behaviour.

A
few dozen Facebook likes, they claim, can help in revealing everything
from preference for a particular political party to what extent one may
be vulnerable to substance abuse. In 2015, when it burst into the scene
of American politics, Cambridge Analytica boasted that
it had “5,000 data points on every American” and claimed that it had
used it to build “extensive personality profiles” that can be used for
“psychographic targeting”.

In a 2016 profile of the targeting model behind Cambridge Analytica, Zurich-based culture magazine Das Magazin talked of how accurately it could play out:

The
strength of their [Kosinski and his Cambridge colleagues] modeling was
illustrated by how well it could predict a subject’s answers. Kosinski
continued to work on the models incessantly: before long, he was able to
evaluate a person better than the average work colleague, merely on the
basis of ten Facebook “likes.” Seventy “likes” were enough to outdo
what a person’s friends knew, 150 what their parents knew, and 300
“likes” what their partner knew.. More “likes” could even surpass what a
person thought they knew about themselves.

While
the efficacy of such methods has been hotly debated, there is little
doubt that CA and SCL have managed to market these tools well, turning it into a lucrative business.

File photo of Alexander Nix, head of Cambridge Analytica. Credit: Reuters

This weekend, news broke that
in 2014, Cambridge Analytica had hired a UK-based research firm (Global
Science Research, GSR) to harvest nearly 50 million Facebook profiles –
the majority of which were collated and collected in violation of
Facebook’s policies.

Essentially,
GSR collected this information through an app on the site – it
collected not only the details of American users who were paid to take a
personality test, but also wrongly (and likely illegally) hoovered up
the data of the test takers’ Facebook friends.

One
day before the news broke, Facebook announced that it had banned
Cambridge Analytica over allegations that it had held onto improperly
obtained user data even after promising that it had deleted the
information.

On
Monday, following the telecast of a Channel 4 investigation in which
Cambridge Analytica executives are filmed tellings reporters – who posed
as Sri Lankan clients looking for an electoral edge – talking of dirty
tricks including the use of bribery and honey traps, British officials were quoted as saying they would seek a warrant to force the firm to hand over the data it had used in some of its election-related campaigns.

SCL, CA and India

In an interaction with The Wire,
Tyagi denied that such tactics were used in any of OBL’s political
campaigns in India, but also refused to admit that Cambridge Analytica
or SCL had done anything wrong.

“Nothing
has been established yet. They [CA and SCL] are looking after the
issue. I am in touch with their senior officials and they are denying
the allegations. They are looking for legal action against whoever is
trying to malign them. I also don’t think they have breached any ethical
or legal rules here in India,” he said.

The
relationship between Tyagi and Strategic Communication Laboratories
(SCL) goes back over seven years now. SCL’s raison d’etre is to provide
“data analytics and strategy to governments and military organisations”
and over the last 25 years they have “conducted behavioural change
programs in over 60 countries”.

Tyagi
says that they started out by complementing each other’s offerings –
especially in South Asia by “providing logistics” among other services.

SCL’s website lists two major projects in the Indian subcontinent, both of which deal with psychological profiling.

One,
they carried out a campaign in Nepal to help the government “reduce and
ultimately stop large numbers of Maoist insurgents from breaking into
houses”. And two, a separate initiative in Afghanistan to “understand
the behaviours and attitudes of the local Afghan population regarding
sensitive topics such as religious affairs and local governance”.

In 2009-2019, SCL and Tyagi apparently worked on a project that “assessed the phenomenon of honour killings in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan”

Tyagi
and some of SCL’s senior management – including Cambridge Analytica CEO
Alexander Nix, the man currently in the centre of the Facebook
controversy – evidently had ideas of establishing a firm India presence.

Documents
from the corporate affairs ministry show that Ovleno Business
Intelligence (through Amrish Tyagi) and SCL set up and incorporated an
India entity in late 2011 (called Strategic Communications Laboratories
Pvt Limited), with Alexander Nix also coming on board as a director.

It’s
unclear what SCL India actually has done since then – OBI’s website
describes it has having “permanent offices in ten states…with a further
30 branch offices, some 300 permanent employees and over 1,400
consulting staff”.

Tyagi,
however, is vague about SCL India and its goals. He states that the
“plan was very simple” – “to explore political and social projects in
the Indian subcontinent”.

However,
he points out that nothing has “happened yet”, implying that both SCL
India and Cambridge are yet to get to work in the country’s vast
electoral campaigning market.

OBI
and Tyagi, however, have worked on a number of political projects in
India – starting from helping the BJP’s Rajnath Singh in the local
Ghaziabad elections in 2009 to working on the 2015 Bihar and Delhi
assembly elections.

Not Facebook but big data

The
JD(U) leader’s son, insists though that no Facebook-specific
psychological profiling is done here in India. However, it’s clear that
digital data plays an increasingly relevant role.

“Most
of the information we gather is in public domain. Based on where you
shop, the music you buy from the Apple store, trips to the hair salon.
It’s easy nowadays to identify individual tastes and habits. And then
accordingly, create messages. Everyday we receive commercial messages,”
he stated in an interview in 2017.

Being
able to quickly react to social media warfare also appears to be key to
OBI and Tyagi’s strategy. During the Bihar elections in 2015, Tyagi
points out that a photo of Nitish Kumar hugging a tantrik started going
viral. “We had to counter this. Within a few minutes we came out with a
2014 photo of Smriti Irani in which she was showing her hand to an
astrologer in Rajasthan who told her that she will very soon be the
president of India. You have to be very quick to counter,” he pointed out.

Move
and counter-move: When an image of JD(U) leader hugging a tantrik
emerged in the 2015 Bihar elections, OBI dug out and circulated an image
of Smriti Irani consulting an astrologer. Credit: Twitter

His second-in-command, according to the OBI website,
is one Himanshu Sharma, whose profile indicates that he managed “four
election campaigns successfully for the ruling party BJP” while
“confidentially maintaining the database to be provided
constituency-wise to BJP candidate as an additional support for national
elections and state elections of Haryana, Maharashtra, Jharkhand and
Delhi”.

While
Tyagi concedes that the people at SCL and Cambridge Analytica are
“technically very sound”, he insists that they have not helped OBI and
its campaigns in a “digital capacity”. OBI’s work mostly consists of
on-the-ground management including looking at demographic and caste
dynamics.

“We
don’t require it [digital profiling] yet,” he says. However, he
believes that Cambridge Analytica hasn’t done anything wrong.

“[In
politics], we can blame anyone. In India, there is complaining over
EVMs and abroad it is about [digital profiling]. If anyone establishes
[wrong-doing] we will think about it [cutting ties]. Right now, we are
very comfortable with them.”

2567 Wed 21 Mar 2018 LESSON http://www.buddha-vacana.org/ Buddha Vacana — The words of the Buddha — in Classical English

03/20/18

Filed under: General
Posted by: site admin @ 8:04 pm

2567 Wed 21 Mar 2018 LESSON

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/

Buddha Vacana
— The words of the Buddha —

in 23 Classical English

Structured Tree Flow of

Sutta Pitak

Vinay Pitak

Abhidhamma Pitak

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Buddha Vacana

— The words of the Buddha —

Learn Pali online for free and the easy way.

This website is dedicated to those who wish to understand better the
words of the Buddha by learning the basics of Pali language, but who
don’t have much time available for it. The idea is that if their purpose
is merely to get enabled to read the Pali texts and have a fair feeling
of understanding them, even if that understanding does not cover all
the minute details of grammatical rules, they don’t really need to spend
much time struggling with a discouraging learning of tedious
grammatical theory involving such things as numerous declensions and
conjugations.

In that case, it is enough to
limit themselves to simply learn the meaning of the most important Pali
words, because the repeated experience of reading provides an empirical
and intuitive understanding of the most common sentence structures.
They are thus enabled to become autodidacts, choosing the time,
duration, frequency, contents and depth of their own study.

Their understanding of the
Buddha Vacana will become much more precise as they effortlessly learn
and memorize the words and the important formulae that are fundamental
in the Buddha’s teaching, by ways of regular reading. Their learning and
the inspiration they get from it will grow deeper as their receptivity
to the messages of the Teacher will improve.

Disclaimer: This website is created by an autodidact and
is meant for autodidacts. The webmaster has not followed any official
Pali course and there is no claim that all the information presented
here is totally free from errors. Those who want academic precision may
consider joining a formal Pali course. In case the readers notice any
mistake, the webmaster will be grateful if they report it via the
mailbox mentioned under ‘Contact’.

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Sutta Piṭaka -Digha Nikāya

DN 9 -
Poṭṭhapāda Sutta
{excerpt}
— The questions of Poṭṭhapāda —

Poṭṭhapāda asks various questions reagrding the nature of Saññā.

Note: plain texts

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/suttapitaka.html

Sutta Piṭaka

— The basket of discourses —
[ sutta: discourse ]

The Sutta Piṭaka contains the essence of the Buddha’s teaching
regarding the Dhamma. It contains more than ten thousand suttas. It is
divided in five collections called Nikāyas.

Dīgha Nikāya

[dīgha: long] The Dīgha Nikāya gathers 34 of the longest
discourses given by the Buddha. There are various hints that many of
them are late additions to the original corpus and of questionable
authenticity.

Majjhima Nikāya

[majjhima: medium] The Majjhima Nikāya gathers 152 discourses of the Buddha of intermediate length, dealing with diverse matters.

Saṃyutta Nikāya

[samyutta: group] The Saṃyutta Nikāya gathers the suttas
according to their subject in 56 sub-groups called saṃyuttas. It
contains more than three thousand discourses of variable length, but
generally relatively short.

Aṅguttara Nikāya

[aṅg: factor | uttara: additionnal] The Aṅguttara
Nikāya is subdivized in eleven sub-groups called nipātas, each of them
gathering discourses consisting of enumerations of one additional factor
versus those of the precedent nipāta. It contains thousands of suttas
which are generally short.

Khuddaka Nikāya

[khuddha: short, small] The Khuddhaka Nikāya short texts
and is considered as been composed of two stratas: Dhammapada, Udāna,
Itivuttaka, Sutta Nipāta, Theragāthā-Therīgāthā and Jātaka form the
ancient strata, while other books are late additions and their
authenticity is more questionable.

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/formulae.html

Pali Formulae

The view on which this work is based is that the passages of the
suttas which are reported to be the most often repeated by the Buddha in
all the four Nikāyas can be taken as indicating what he considered as
being the most worthy of interest in his teaching, and at the same time
as what represents with most accuracy his actual words. Eight of them
are expounded in the Gaṇaka-Moggallāna Sutta (MN 107) and described as
the Sekha Paṭipadā or Path for one under Training, which practically
leads the neophyte all the way to the fourth jhāna.

Sekha Paṭipadā - The Path for one under Training

Twelve formulae that define step by step the main practices
prescribed by the Buddha. It is of fundamental importance for anyone
wishing to progress successfully, because it contains the instructions
that will enable the meditator to set up the indispensable conditions
for an efficient practice.

Ānāpānassati - Awareness of the Breath: The practice of ānāpānassati is highly recommended by the Buddha
for all kinds of wholesome purposes and here you can understand quite
precisely the instructions he gives.
Anussati - The Recollections: Here we have the standard description of the Buddha (≈140 occ.), the Dhamma (≈90 occ.) and the Sangha (≈45 occ.).
Appamāṇā Cetovimutti - The boundless liberations of the mind: The Buddha often praises the practice of the four appamāṇā
cetovimutti, which are reputed for bringing protection against dangers
and for being a way leading to Brahmaloka.
Arahatta - Arahantship: This is the stock formula by which the attainment of arahantship is described in the suttas.
Ariya Sīlakkhandha - The noble aggregate of virtue: Various rules to be followed by bhikkhus.
Arūpajjhānā - The Formless Jhānas: Here are the stock formulae describing the absorptions of
samādhi beyond the fourth jhāna, which are referred to in late Pali
litterature as arūpajjhānas.
Āsavānaṃ Khayañāṇa - Knowledge of the destruction of the āsavas: Knowledge of the destruction of the āsavas: arahantship.
Bhojane Mattaññutā - Moderation in food: Moderation in food: knowing the proper amount to eat.
Cattāro Jhānā - The four jhānas: The four jhānas: having a pleasant abiding.
Indriyesu Guttadvāratā - Surveillance at the entrance of sense faculties: Guard at the entrance of sense faculties: sense restraint.
Jāgariyaṃ Anuyoga - Dedication to wakefulness: Dedication to wakefulness: day and night.
Kammassakomhi - I am my own kamma: This formula explicits one of the foundation stones of the
Buddha’s teaching: a subjective version of the law of cause and effect.
Nīvaraṇānaṃ Pahāna - Removal of hindrances: Removal of the hindrances: overcoming obstructing mental states.
Pabbajjā - The going forth: The going forth: how one decides to renounce the world.
Pubbenivāsānussatiñāṇa - Knowledge of the recollection of former living places: Knowledge of the recollection of former living places: remembering one’s past lives.
Satipaṭṭhāna - Presence of Awareness: These are the formulae by which the Buddha defines in brief what the four satipaṭṭhānas are (≈33 occ.).
Satisampajañña - Mindfulness and thorough understanding: Mindfulness and thorough understanding: an uninterrupted practice.
Satta saddhammā - Seven good qualities: Seven fundamental qualities that have to be mastered by the
trainee in order to be successful. Four of these qualities appear also
among the five spiritual indriyas and the five balas.
Sattānaṃ Cutūpapātañāṇa - Knowledge of the rebirth of diceased beings: Knowledge of the rebirth of diceased beings.
Sīlasampatti - Accomplishment in virtue: Accomplishment in virtue: a careful observance of the Pātimokkha rules.
Vivitta Senāsanena Bhajana - Resorting to secluded dwellings: The choice of a proper place and the adoption of the proper
physical and mental posture is another sine qua non condition of
successful practice.

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/patimokkha.html

Tree

Pātimokkha

— The Bhikkhu’s guidelines —

These are the 227 guidelines that every bhikkhu must learn by heart in
Pali language in order to be able to recite them. Here a semantic
analysis of each guideline will (hopefully) be provided.

Pārājika 1: Should any bhikkhu — participating in the training and
livelihood of the bhikkhus, without having renounced the training,
without having declared his weakness — engage in sexual intercourse,
even with a female animal, he is defeated and no longer in affiliation.

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/patimokkha/par1.html: >> Pātimokkha

Pārājika 1

yo pana bhikkhu	Should any bhikkhu
bhikkhūnaṃ sikkhā·s·ājīva·samāpanno	participating in the training and livelihood of the bhikkhus,
sikkhaṃ a·paccakkhāya	without having renounced the training,
du·b·balyaṃ an·āvi·katvā	without having declared his weakness
methunaṃ dhammaṃ paṭiseveyya	engage in sexual intercourse,
antamaso tiracchāna·gatāya·pi,	even with a female animal,
pārājiko hoti a·saṃvāso.	he is defeated and no longer in affiliation.

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/download.html

Tree

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For any remark, suggestion, question:

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Easy access:

Dīgha Nikāya

Majjhima Nikāya

Saṃyutta Nikāya

Aṅguttara Nikāya

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/digha.html

Dīgha Nikāya

— The long discourses —
[ dīgha: long ]

The Dīgha Nikāya gathers 34 of the longest discourses supposedly given by the Buddha.

Poṭṭhapāda Sutta (DN 9) {excerpt} - enhanced translation: Poṭṭhapāda asks various questions reagrding the nature of Saññā.
Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (DN 16) {excerpts} - word by word: This sutta gathers various instructions the Buddha gave for the
sake of his followers after his passing away, which makes it be a very
important set of instructions for us nowadays.
Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (DN 22) - word by word: This sutta is widely considered as a fundamental reference for meditation practice.

——————oooOooo——————

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/majjhima.html
>> Sutta Piṭaka

Majjhima Nikāya

— The discourses of medium length —
[ majjhima: medium ]

The Majjhima Nikāya gathers 152 discourses of the Buddha of intermediate length, dealing with diverse matters.

Sabbāsava Sutta (MN 2) - enhanced translation: Very interesting sutta, where the different ways by which the āsavas, fermentating defilements of the mind, are dispelled.
Bhayabherava Sutta (MN 4) - enhanced translation: What would it take to live in solitude in the wilderness, completely free from fear? The Buddha explains.
Vattha Sutta (MN 7) {excerpt} - enhanced translation: We
find here a rather standard list of sixteen defilements (upakkilesa) of
the mind, and an explanation of a mechanism by which one gets these
‘confirmed confidences’ in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha that
are factors of stream-entry.
Mahādukkhakkhandha Sutta (MN 13) - enhanced translation: On the assāda (allure), ādīnava (drawback) and nissaraṇa
(emancipation) of kāma (sensuality), rūpa (form) and vedanā (feeling). A
lot of very useful matter to ponder over.
Cūḷahatthipadopama Sutta (MN 27) - enhanced translation: The Buddha explains how the fact that he is actually an
enlightened being must be taken on faith or as a conjecture until a
certain stage is reached, and that any claim of such a knowledge without
that realization is be worthless.
Mahāvedalla Sutta (MN 43) {excerpt} - word by word: Sāriputta answers various interesting questions asked by āyasmā
Mahākoṭṭhika, and in this excerpt, he explains that Vedanā, Saññā and
Viññāṇa are not clearly delineated but deeply interwoven.
Cūḷavedalla Sutta (MN 44) {excerpt} - enhanced translation: The bhikkhuni Dhammadinnā answers a series of interesting
questions asked by Visākha. Among other things, she gives the 20-fold
definition of sakkāyadiṭṭhi.
Sekha Sutta (MN 53) - enhanced translation: The Buddha asks Ānanda to expound the Sekha Paṭipadā, of which
he gives a surprising version, from which Satisampajañña and Nīvaraṇānaṃ
Pahāna are curiously replaced by a series of seven ‘good qualities’,
and which is illustrated by a telling simile.
Potaliya Sutta (MN 54) - enhanced translation: A series of seven standard similes to explain the drawbacks and dangers of giving in to sensuality.
Bahuvedanīya Sutta (MN 59) {excerpt} - word by word: In this short excerpt, the Buddha defines the five kāmaguṇās and makes an important comparison with another type of pleasure.
Kīṭāgiri Sutta (MN 70) {excerpt} - enhanced translation: This sutta contains a definition of dhammānusārī and saddhānusārī.
Bāhitikā Sutta (MN 88) {excerpt} - enhanced translation: The
King Pasenadi of Kosala is eager to understand what is recommended or
not by wise ascetics and brahmans, and he asks series of questions to
Ānanda which allow us a better grasp of the meaning of the words kusala
(wholesome) and akusala (unwholesome).
Ānāpānassati Sutta (MN 118) - word by word: The famous sutta about the practice of ānāpānassati, and how it
leads to the practice of the four satipaṭṭhānas and subsquently to the
fulfillment of the seven bojjhaṅgas.
Saḷāyatanavibhaṅga Sutta (MN 137) {excerpt} - enhanced translation: In this deep and very interesting sutta, the Buddha defines
among other things what are the investigations of pleasant, unpleasant
and neutral mental feelings, and also defines the expression found in
the standard description of the Buddha: ‘anuttaro purisadammasārathī’.
Indriyabhāvanā Sutta (MN 152) - word by word: This sutta offers three approaches to the practice of sense restraint, that contain additional instructions complementing the Indriyesu Guttadvāratā formulae.

— The classified discourses —
[ saṃyutta: group ]

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>> Sutta Piṭaka

Saṃyutta Nikāya

The discourses of the Saṃyutta Nikāya are divided according to
their theme in 56 saṃyuttas, which are themselves grouped in five
vaggas.

Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 12.2) - word by word: A detailed explanation of paṭicca samuppāda, with a definition of each of the twelve links.
Cetanā Sutta (SN 12.38) - enhanced translation: Here the Buddha explains how cetanā, together with pondering and anusaya, act as a basis for viññāṇa.
Upādāna Sutta (SN 12.52) - enhanced translation: This
is a very enlightening lesson that reveals by which psychological
mechanism one gives in to craving, and explains how it can be easily
replaced by wholesome considerations to get rid of it.
Puttamaṃsūpama Sutta (SN 12.63) - enhanced translation: The Buddha offers here four impressing and inspiring similes to explain how the four āhāras should be regarded.
Sanidāna Sutta (SN 14.12) - enhanced translation: A
wonderful explanation of how perceptions turn into actions, further
enlightened by the simile of the blazing torch. Remain diligently
mindful to dispel unwholesome thoughts!
Āṇi Sutta (SN 20.7) - word by word: A
very important thing is reminded to us by the Buddha: for our own
benefit as well as for the benfit of the generations yet to come, we
must give most importance to his own actual words, and not so much to
whoever else pretends nowadays or has pretended in the past to be a
proper (Dhamma) teacher.
Samādhi Sutta (SN 22.5) - word by word: The
Buddha exhorts his followers to develop concentration so that they can
practice insight into the arising and passing away of the five
aggregates, after which he defines what he means by arising and passing
away of the aggregates, in terms of dependent origination.
Paṭisallāṇa Sutta (SN 22.6) - without translation: The
Buddha exhorts his followers to practice seclusion so that they can
practice insight into the arising and passing away of the five
aggregates, after which he defines what he means by arising and passing
away of the aggregates, in terms of dependent origination.
Upādāparitassanā Sutta (SN 22.8) - word by word: The arising and cessation of suffering takes place in the five aggregates.
Nandikkhaya Sutta (SN 22.51) - word by word: How to operate the destruction of delight.
Anattalakkhana Sutta (SN 22.59) - word by word: In this very famous sutta, the Buddha expounds for the first time his teaching on anatta.
Khajjanīya Sutta (SN 22.79) {excerpt} - word by word: This sutta provides a succinct definition of the five khandhas.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 29.1) - enhanced translation: The different types of nāgas.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 30.1) - enhanced translation: The different types of supaṇṇas (aka garudas).
Suddhika Sutta (SN 31.1) - enhanced translation: The different types of gandhabba devas.
Suddhika Sutta (SN 32.1) - enhanced translation: The different types of cloud devas.
Samāpattimūlakaṭhiti Sutta (SN 34.11) - enhanced translation: Attaining concentration vs maintaining concentration.
Pubbesambodha Sutta (SN 35.13) - word by word: The
Buddha defines what he means by allure, drawback and emancipation in
the case of the internal sense spheres, and then declares that his
awakening was nothing more nor less than understanding them.
Abhinanda Sutta (SN 35.20) - word by word: There is no escape for whoever delights in sense objects.
Migajāla Sutta (SN 35.46) - enhanced translation: Why
is true solitude so hard to find? The Buddha explains why, no matter
where you go, your most annoying companions always tag along.
Avijjāpahāna Sutta (SN 35.53) - word by word: A very simple discourse, yet very deep, on what to know and see to abandon ignorance and produce knowledge.
Sabbupādānapariññā Sutta (SN 35.60) - word by word: The
Buddha, while expounding the complete understanding of all attachment,
gives a deep and yet very clear explanation: contact arises on the basis
of three phenomena.
Migajāla Sutta Sutta (SN 35.64) {excerpt} - word by word: Some
neophytes (and we may often count ourselves among them) sometimes want
to believe that it is possible to delight in sensual pleasures without
giving rise to attachment nor suffering. The Buddha teaches Migajāla
that this is downright impossible.
Adantāgutta Sutta (SN 35.94) - word by word: Here
is one of those advises which are so easy to understand with the
intellect, yet so difficult to understand at deeper levels because our
wrong views constantly interfere in the process. Therefore we need to
get it repeated often, even though that may seem boring to some.
Pamādavihārī Sutta (SN 35.97) - word by word: What makes the difference between one who lives with negligence and one who lives with vigilance.
Sakkapañhā Sutta Sutta (SN 35.118) - word by word: The
Buddha gives a rather simple answer to Sakka’s question: what is the
reason why some people attain the final goal while others don’t?
Rūpārāma Sutta (SN 35.137) - word by word: The
Buddha explains for us once more, in yet another way, the cause and the
cessation of suffering. It takes place right in the middle of what we
keep doing all day and all night.
Aniccanibbānasappāya Sutta (SN 35.147) - word by word: Here
are hardcore vipassanā instructions dealing with the perception of
impermanence for advanced meditators who are looking forward to
attaining Nibbāna.
Ajjhattānattahetu Sutta (SN 35.142) - word by word: How
investigating the causes for the arising of the sense organs, in which
the characteristic of nonself may be easier to understand, allows a
transfer of this understanding to their case.
Samudda Sutta (SN 35.229) - enhanced translation: What the ocean in the discipline of the noble ones is. Beware not to sink in it!
Pahāna Sutta (SN 36.3) - enhanced translation: The relation between the three types of vedanā and three of the anusayas.
Daṭṭhabba Sutta (SN 36.5) - enhanced translation: How the three types of vedanā (feelings) should be seen.
Salla Sutta (SN 36.6) - enhanced translation: When
shot by the arrow of physical pain, an unwise person makes matters
worse by piling mental anguish on top of it, just as if he had been shot
by two arrows. A wise person feels the sting of one arrow alone.
Anicca Sutta (SN 36.9) - enhanced translation: Seven
characteristics of vedanā (feelings), which are also applicable to the
other four khandhas (SN 22.21) and each of the twelve links of
paṭicca·samuppāda (SN 12.20).
Phassamūlaka Sutta (SN 36.10) - word by word: The three types of feelings are rooted in three types of contacts.
Aṭṭhasata Sutta (SN 36.22) - enhanced translation: The
Buddha expounds vedanās in seven different ways, analysing them into
two, three, five, six, eighteen, thirty six or one hundred and eight
categories.
Nirāmisa Sutta (SN 36.31) {excerpt} - word by word: We
can understand here that pīti, though being often listed as a
bojjhaṅga, can also sometimes be akusala. This passage also includes a
definition of the five kāmaguṇā.
Dhammavādīpañhā Sutta (SN 38.3) - enhanced translation: Who professes the Dhamma in the world (dhamma·vādī)? Who practices well (su·p·paṭipanna)? Who is faring well (su·gata)?
Dukkara Sutta (SN 39.16) - enhanced translation: What is difficult to do in this Teaching and Discipline?
Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 45.8) - word by word: Here the Buddha defines precisely each factor of the eightfold noble path.
Āgantuka Sutta (SN 45.159) - enhanced translation: How the Noble Path works with the abhiññā pertaining to various dhammas as a guest-house welcoming various kinds of visitors.
Kusala Sutta (SN 46.32) - word by word: All that is advantageous unite in one thing.
Āhāra Sutta (SN 46.51) - enhanced translation: The
Buddha describes how we can either “feed” or “starve” the hindrances
and the factors of enlightenment according to how we apply our
attention.
Saṅgārava Sutta (SN 46.55) {excerpt} - enhanced translation: A
beautiful series of similes to explain how the five nīvaraṇas
(hindrances) affect the purity of the mind and its ability to perceive
the reality as it is.
Sati Sutta (SN 47.35) - word by word: In this sutta, the Buddha reminds the bhikkhus to be satos and sampajānos, and then defines these two terms.
Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 47.40) - word by word: The satipaṭṭhānas taught in short.
Daṭṭhabba Sutta (SN 48.8) - enhanced translation: Each of the five spiritual indriyas is said to be seen in a fourfold dhamma.
Saṃkhitta Sutta (SN 48.14) - enhanced translation: Fulfilling them is all we have to do, and this is the measure of our liberation.
Vibhaṅga Sutta (SN 48.38) - enhanced translation: Here the Buddha defines the five sensitive indriyas.
Uppaṭipāṭika Sutta (SN 48.40) - enhanced translation: This
sutta draws an interesting parallel between the cessation of the
feeling faculties and the successive attainments of jhānas.
Sāketa Sutta (SN 48.43) {excerpt} - enhanced translation: In
this sutta, the Buddha states that the balas and the indriyas can be
considered as one and the same thing or as two different things.
Patiṭṭhita Sutta (SN 48.56) - enhanced translation: There is one mental state through which all the five spiritual faculties are perfected.
Bīja Sutta (SN 49.24) - enhanced translation: A beautiful simile that illustrates how fundamental virtue is for the practice of the four right strivings.
Gantha Sutta (SN 50.102) - enhanced translation: This
sutta is based on the interesting list of the four ‘bodily knots’, and
promotes the development of the five spiritual strengths.
Viraddha Sutta (SN 51.2) - enhanced translation: Whoever neglects these neglects the noble path.
Chandasamādhi Sutta (SN 51.13) - enhanced translation: This sutta explains clearly the meaning of the formulae describing the practice of the iddhi·pādas.
Samaṇabrāhmaṇa Sutta (SN 51.17) - enhanced translation: Wether
in the past, in the future or at present, whoever wields supernormal
powers has developped and assiduously practiced four things.
Vidhā Sutta (SN 53.36) - enhanced translation: The
jhānas are recommended to get rid of the three types of conceit, which
are related to comparing oneself with others. It makes it plain that if
there is any hierarchy in the Sangha, it is only for practical purposes,
and it is not to be taken as being representative of any reality. It is
not quite clear whether this is one sutta repeating 16 times the same
thing, or 16 suttas grouped together, or 4 suttas containing each 4
repetitions.
Padīpopama Sutta (SN 54.8) - word by word: Here
the Buddha explains ānāpānassati and recommands it for various
purposes: from abandoning gross impurities, through developing all the
eight jhānas.
Saraṇānisakka Sutta (SN 55.24) - enhanced translation: In
this interesting discourse, the Buddha states that one does not even
have to have gained strong confidence in the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha
to become a stream-winner at the time of death.
Mahānāma Sutta (SN 55.37) - enhanced translation: What it means to be a lay lay disciple, endowed with virtue, conviction, generosity and discernment.
Aṅga Sutta (SN 55.50) - word by word: The four sotāpattiyaṅgas (factors for stream-entry).
Samādhi Sutta (SN 56.1) - word by word: The Buddha exhorts the bhikkhus to practice samādhi, for it leads to understanding the four noble truths in their true nature.
Paṭisallāna Sutta (SN 56.2) - word by word: The
Buddha exhorts the bhikkhus to practice paṭisallāna, for it leads to
understanding the four noble truths in their true nature.
Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (SN 56.11) - word by word: This is certainly the most famous sutta in the Pali litterature. The Buddha expounds the four ariya-saccas for the first time.
Saṅkāsanā Sutta (SN 56.19) - enhanced translation: The
teaching of the four noble truths, however boring it may seem to the
wandering mind, is actually very deep and the mind could spend the whole
time investigating it.
Siṃsapāvana Sutta (SN 56.31) - word by word: The
famous sutta where the Buddha states that he has no interest in any
teachings which are not immediately connected with attaining the goal.
Daṇḍa Sutta (SN 56.33) - enhanced translation: The telling simile of the stick.

——————oooOooo——————
Bodhi leaf

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Tree >> Sutta Piṭaka

Aṅguttara Nikāya

— The discourses of one additional factor —
[ aṅg: factor | uttara: additional ]

The Aṅguttara Nikāya contains thousands
of short discourses, which have the particularity to be structured as
enumerations. It is divided into eleven sections, the first dealing with
enumerations of one item, the second with those of two items etc. The
Buddha, having never made use of writing, asked his listeners to be
attentive and to memorize his instructions. In order to make his words
as clear as possible and to facilitate this memorization, he often
presented his teaching in the form of enumerations.

Nipātas

1.	Ekaka Nipāta	7.	Sattaka Nipāta
2.	Duka Nipāta	8.	Aṭṭhaka Nipāta
3.	Tika Nipāta	9.	Navaka Nipāta
4.	Catuka Nipāta	10.	Dasaka Nipāta
5.	Pañcaka Nipāta	11.	Ekādasaka Nipāta
6.	Chakka Nipāta

1. Ekaka Nipāta

Rūpādi Vagga (AN 1.1-10) - word by word: There are five types of sense objects that overpower the mind of (most) human beings more than any others.
Nīvaraṇappahāna Vagga (AN 1.11-20) - word by word: The five dhammas that nourish most efficiently the five hindrances, and the five most effective ways to dispell them.
Akammaniya Vagga (AN 1.21-30) - word by word: The mind can be our worst enemy or our best friend.
Adanta Vagga (AN 1.31-40) - enhanced translation: The mind can be our worst enemy or our best friend.
Udakarahaka Suttas (AN 1.45 & 46) - enhanced translation: The difference between a clear mind and a muddy one.
Mudu Sutta (AN 1.47) - enhanced translation: A simile for a mind that’s pliant.
Lahuparivatta Sutta (AN 1.48) - enhanced translation: The Buddha, normally so adept at finding similes, is here at a loss.
Accharāsaṅghāta Peyyāla (AN 1.53-55) - word by word: Practicing goodwill makes one worthy of gifts.
Kusala Suttas (AN 1.56-73) - word by word: What produces and what eliminates wholesome and unwholesome mental states.
Pamāda Suttas (AN 1.58-59) - enhanced translation: Nothing is so disadvantageous as this.
Pamādādi Vagga (AN 1.81-97) - word by word: The Buddha repetedly warns us against heedlessness.
Kāyagatāsati Vagga (AN 1.563-574) {excerpts} - enhanced translation: The Buddha speaks in high praise of the mindfulness directed to the body.

2. Duka Nipāta

Appaṭivāna Sutta (AN 2.5) - enhanced translation: How we ought to train ourselves if we wish to reach awakening.
Cariya Sutta (AN 2.9) - enhanced translation: What is it, after all, that guarantees harmony, politeness,
honesty, brotherhood in a word peace within a given society? The Buddha
explains here which are the two guardians of the world.
Ekaṃsena Sutta (AN 2.18) - enhanced translation: Here is one thing that the Buddha declares categorically.
Vijjābhāgiya Sutta (AN 2.32) - word by word: Here the Buddha relates Samatha with rāga and cetovimutti, and Vipassanā with avijjā and paññāvimutti.

3. Tika Nipāta

Kesamutti [aka Kālāmā] Sutta (AN 3.66) - word by word: In
this famous sutta, the Buddha reminds us to ultimately trust only our
own direct experience of the reality, not what is declared by others,
even if they happen to be our ‘revered teacher’.
Sāḷha Sutta (AN 3.67) - enhanced translation: The advice given here is very similar to that given to the Kalamas.
Aññatitthiya Sutta (AN 3.69) - enhanced translation: The
three roots of the unwholesome are explained with their respectve
characteristic, the cause of their arising, and the way to bring about
their cessation.
Uposatha Sutta (AN 3.71) - enhanced translation: In this sutta, the Buddha defines how lay people should practice Uposatha and describes the different types of devas.
Sīlabbata Sutta (AN 3.79) - enhanced translation: Ānanda explains by which very simple creteria rites and rituals can be judged as beneficial or not.
Samaṇa Sutta (AN 3.82) - enhanced translation: Here are the three ascetics tasks of an ascetic.
Vajjiputta Sutta (AN 3.85) - enhanced translation: A
certain monk cannot train with so many rules. The Buddha explains him
how he can do without them, and it works out rather well.
Sikkhattaya Sutta (AN 3.90) - word by word: The Buddha defines the three trainings, i.e. adhisīlasikkhā, adhicittasikkhā and adhipaññāsikkhā.
Accāyika Sutta (AN 3.93) - enhanced translation: Three urgent tasks of an ascetic which are like three urgent tasks of a farmer.
Sikkhattaya Sutta (AN 3.91) - word by word: Here the Buddha gives an alternate definition of adhipaññāsikkhā.
Paṃsudhovaka Sutta (AN 3.102) - few info·bubbles: In
this sutta, the Buddha compares the removal of mental impurities
through the practice to the work of a goldsmith. It is particularly
interesting, because it provides a gradual exposition of the impurities
one has to deal with during the practice, which gives an useful
reference.
Nimitta Sutta (AN 3.103) - few info·bubbles: Do
you find yourself nodding off or becoming overly agitated during your
meditation practice? This is a very useful discourse for the meditators
who wish to balance the two corresponding spiritual faculties of effort
and concentration, together with equanimity. Many of us would benefit
substantially from applying properly these instructions.
Ruṇṇa Sutta (AN 3.108) - word by word: Here
the Buddha explains what is singing and dancing in the discipline of
the noble ones, and then gives his instrunction regarding laughing and
smiling.
Atitti Sutta (AN 3.109) - enhanced translation: Three wrong things, of which many are unfortunately fond, that can never bring about satiety.
Nidāna Sutta (AN 3.112) - enhanced translation: Six causes, three wholesome and three unwholesome, to the arising of kamma.
Kammapatha Sutta (AN 3.164) - word by word: It is demonstrated here that the view according to which there is nothing wrong in being non-vegetarian is erroneous.

4. Catukka Nipāta

Yoga Sutta (AN 4.10) - enhanced translation: What the Buddha means when he talks about yoga and yogakkhema (rest from the yoke).
Padhāna Sutta (AN 4.13) - word by word: In this sutta, the Buddha gives a definition of the sammappadhānas.
Aparihāniya Sutta (AN 4.37) - enhanced translation: Four simple practices that make one incapable of falling away, right in the presence of Nibbāna.
Samādhibhāvanā Sutta (AN 4.41) - word by word: The
four types of concentration that the Buddha commends. It is quite
obvious here that no clear distinction is made between samādhi and
paññā.
Vipallāsa Sutta (AN 4.49) - word by word: In this sutta, the Buddha describes the fourfold distortion of saññā, citta and diṭṭhi.
Appamāda Sutta (AN 4.116) - simple translation: Four instances in which one should practice with assiduity.
Ārakkha Sutta (AN 4.117) - simple translation: Four things to be undertaken with assiduity, mindfulness while protecting the mind.
Mettā Sutta (AN 4.125) - enhanced translation: Here
the Buddha explains what kind of rebirth one who thoroughly practices
the four Brahmavihāras can expect, and the great advantage of being his
disciple.
Asubha Sutta (AN 4.163) - enhanced translation: The
four ways of practicing, according to the type of practice chosen and
the intensity or weakness of strengths and spiritual factulties.
Abhiññā Sutta (AN 4.254) - without translation: How the Noble Path works with the abhiññā pertaining to various dhammas as a guest-house welcoming various kinds of visitors.
Arañña Sutta (AN 4.262) - enhanced translation: What sort of person is fit to live in the wilderness?

5. Pañcaka Nipāta

Vitthata Sutta (AN 5.2) - without translation: Here the Buddha defines in detail what he calls the five
Sekha-balas (strenghs of one in training). This sutta is easily
understandable without requiring a parallel translation, if you refer to
the Satta saddhammā Formulae as will be suggested in the text. The Pali-English Dictionary is also available, just in case.
Vitthata Sutta (AN 5.14) - word by word: Here are defined the five balas.
Samādhi Sutta (AN 5.27) - enhanced translation: Five uplifting knowledges that occur to one who practices the boundless concentration.
Akusalarāsi Sutta (AN 5.52) - enhanced translation: Speaking rightly, what should be called ‘accumulation of demerit’?
Abhiṇhapaccavekkhitabbaṭhāna Sutta (AN 5.57) {excerpt} - word by word: How to consider one’s own kamma.
Anāgatabhaya Sutta (AN 5.80) - enhanced translation: The
Buddha reminds the monks that the practice of Dhamma should not be put
off for a later date, for there are no guarantees that the future will
provide any opportunities for practice.
Sekha Sutta (AN 5.89) - without translation: The
Buddha reminds us of five things that deteriorate the practice, which
for anyone wishing to progress in the training are nearly as important
to know about, remember and integrate into our lifestyles as the
knowledge of the five standard nīvaraṇas.
Sekha Sutta (AN 5.90) - enhanced translation: Five attitudes that lead to the deterioration of the practice.
Sutadhara Sutta (AN 5.96) - enhanced translation: Five qualities the lead one practicing mindfulness of breathing to liberation in no long time.
Kathā Sutta (AN 5.97) - enhanced translation: Five qualities the lead one practicing mindfulness of breathing to liberation in no long time.
Āraññaka Sutta (AN 5.98) - enhanced translation: Five qualities the lead one practicing mindfulness of breathing to liberation in no long time.
Andhakavinda Sutta (AN 5.114) - enhanced translation: Five things that the Buddha exhorted his newly ordained monks to do.
Samayavimutta Sutta (AN 5.149) - without translation: Five conditions under which one who has gained ‘occasional liberation’ will backslide.
Samayavimutta Sutta (AN 5.150) - without translation: Another set of five conditions under which one who has gained ‘occasional liberation’ will backslide.
Vaṇijjā Sutta (AN 5.177) - enhanced translation: The Buddha specifies here five trades which should not be carried on by his lay followers, among which the business of meat.
Gihī Sutta (AN 5.179) - enhanced translation: In
this sutta, the Buddha gives greater precision about the way in which
the four usual sotāpattiyaṅgas have to be internalized in order to
constitute the proper conditions for sotāpatti.
Nissāraṇīya Sutta (AN 5.200) - enhanced translation: This sutta declines five types of nissāraṇas.
Yāgu Sutta (AN 5.207) - enhanced translation: The Buddha gives five advantages of eating rice-gruel.
Dantakaṭṭha Sutta (AN 5.208) - enhanced translation: The Buddha gives five reasons to use a tooth-cleaner.
Gītassara Sutta (AN 5.209) - word by word: This
sutta has been largely overlooked by the various buddhist traditions:
the Buddha explains why he does not allow the bhikkhus to perform any
melodic chanting.
Muṭṭhassati Sutta (AN 5.210) - enhanced translation: The disadvantages of falling asleep without proper sati and sampajañña, and the respective advantages of doing so with them.
Duccarita Sutta (AN 5.241) - enhanced translation: Five dangers of duccarita (bad conduct) and five advantages of sucarita (good conduct).
Duccarita Sutta (AN 5.245) - enhanced translation: Another sutta about the five dangers of duccarita and five advantages of sucarita.
Sivathika Sutta (AN 5.249) - enhanced translation: Five ways in which an ill-conducted person can be similar to a charnel ground where people throw dead bodies.
Puggalappasāda Sutta (AN 5.250) - enhanced translation: Here is a rare warning given by the Buddha about the dangers of placing confidence in anyone.
Rāgassa abhiññāya Sutta (AN 5.303) - enhanced translation: Five things to be practiced for the direct knowledge of rāga.

6. Chakka Nipāta

Bhaddaka Sutta (AN 6.14) - few info·bubbles: Sāriputta
explains what makes the difference between a bhikkhu whose death will
be unauspicious and one whose death will be auspicious.
Anutappiya Sutta (AN 6.15) - few info·bubbles: Sāriputta
explains what makes the difference between a bhikkhu whose death will
be remorseful and one whose death will be remorseless.
Maraṇassati Sutta (AN 6.20) - enhanced translation: This sutta explains in detail how to practice the mindfulness of death.
Sāmaka Sutta (AN 6.21) - few info·bubbles: Prompted
by the intervention of a deva, the Buddha reveals the six ageless ways
by which bhikkhus deteriorate in kusala dhammas.
Aparihāniya Sutta (AN 6.22) - few info·bubbles: Six dhammas connected to non-deterioration. Another set of very useful dhammas for keen practitioners.
Himavanta Sutta (AN 6.24) - enhanced translation: Six qualities undowed with which a meditator would reportedly break into pieces the Himalayas.
Anussatiṭṭhāna Sutta (AN 6.25) - enhanced translation: This sutta defines what are the six subjects of recollection.
Sekha Sutta (AN 6.31) - without translation: The Buddha explains which are the six dhammas leading to the deterioration of a bhikkhu under training.
Nāgita Sutta (AN 6.42) - enhanced translation: While
dwelling in a forest grove, the Buddha speaks in praise of modesty,
contentment, unentanglement, and seclusion in the wilderness.
Dhammika Sutta (AN 6.54) - plain texts: In
this sutta, the word tathāgata is not used to designate the Buddha but
in the common sense, which allows us a better grasp of its meaning.
Nibbedhika Sutta (AN 6.63) - plain texts: This
sutta provides an interesting systematic analysis of Kāma, Vedanā,
Saññā, Āsavā, Kamma and Dukkha. Each of these terms is defined and then
described witht the pattern of the four ariya-saccas.
Anavatthitā Sutta (AN 6.102) - enhanced translation: Six rewards that should act as a motivation for establishing the perception of anicca.
Atammaya Sutta (AN 6.104) - enhanced translation: Six rewards that should act as a motivation for establishing the perception of anatta.
Assāda Sutta (AN 6.112) - enhanced translation: How to eradicate the view of enjoyment, the view of self, and wrong view in general.
Dhammānupassī Sutta (AN 6.118) - word by word: It
is worth having repeated the message given in this sutta: six habits
without abandoning which it is not possible to practice the
satipaṭṭhānas properly. Quite some cleaning may be advisable here.

7. Sattaka Nipāta

Anusaya Sutta (AN 7.11) - plain texts: Here are listed the seven anusayas.
Anusaya Sutta (AN 7.12) - enhanced translation: On abandoning the seven anusaya (obsessions or latent tendencies).
Saññā Sutta (AN 7.27) - enhanced translation: Seven perceptions that lead to the long-term welfare of the bhikkhus and prevent their decline.
Parihāni Sutta (AN 7.28) - enhanced translation: Seven points on which a bhikkhu in training may decline or not.
Parihāni Sutta (AN 7.29) - enhanced translation: Seven points of behavior on which a lay follower may decline or not.
Vipatti Sutta (AN 7.30) - enhanced translation: Seven points of behavior on which a lay follower may meet his/her failure or success.
Parābhava Sutta (AN 7.31) - enhanced translation: Seven points of behavior on which a lay follower may meet his/her ruin or prosperity.
Saññā Sutta (AN 7.49) - enhanced translation: Seven inner reflections that are well worth pursuing.
Nagaropama Sutta (AN 7.67) - plain texts with Pali Formulae: Here the Buddha uses an enlightening simile to explain how seven
good qualities that should be mastered by the trainee in order to be
successful work together to prevent the troops of Māra (ie. akusala
dhammas) from entering the fortress of the mind.
Satthusāsana Sutta (AN 7.83) - word by word: Here is a very concise sevenfold instruction to discriminate what is the Teaching of the Buddha from what is not.

8. Aṭṭhaka Nipāta

Nanda Sutta (AN 8.9) {excerpt} - word by word: The Buddha describes how Nanda, though being prey to fierce
sense desire, practices throroughly in accordance to his instructions.
This sutta contains a definition of satisampajañña.
Mahānāma Sutta (AN 8.25) {excerpt} - word by word: Mahānāma asks the Buddha to define what is a lay follower and in what respect a lay follower is expected to be virtuous.
Anuruddhamahāvitakka Sutta (AN 8.30) - few info·bubbles: Seven
wise thoughts which are truly worth understanding and remembering occur
to ven. Anuruddha. The Buddha comes to him to teach him the eighth,
endowed with which he will attain arahantship. The Buddha then explains
in detail the meaning of those thoughts.
Abhisanda Sutta (AN 8.39) - enhanced translation: Here are eight ways in which all serious disciples of the Buddha create much merit for themselves.
Duccaritavipāka Sutta (AN 8.40) - few info·bubbles: This sutta describes the kind of suffering which one undergoes owing to the non observance of the main precepts.
Saṅkhitta Sutta (AN 8.53) - word by word: The Buddha gives here to his former nurse eight criteria to
discriminate whether a given statement belongs to his teaching or not,
which may happen to be handy nowadays.
Dīghajāṇu Sutta (AN 8.54) {excerpt} - plain texts: Among other things, the Buddha defines in this sutta what he means by generosity.
Vimokkha Sutta (AN 8.66) - enhanced translation: An explanation of the eight vimokkhas (liberations).
Parihāna Sutta (AN 8.79) - without translation: The Buddha explains which are the eight dhammas leading to the deterioration of a bhikkhu under training.

9. Navaka Nipāta

Nāga Sutta (AN 9.40) - plain texts: This sutta, colored with subtle humor, explains how a bhikkhu of
heightened mind is comparable to a solitary elephant, both of whom are
usually called Nāga.
Tapussa Sutta (AN 9.41) {excerpt} - plain texts: Here saññā·vedayita·nirodha, the cessation of saññā and vedanā is presented as a ninth jhāna.
Sikkhādubbalya Sutta (AN 9.63) - word by word: What to do if one is not yet perfect in the five precepts.
Nīvaraṇa Sutta (AN 9.64) - word by word: How to remove the five hindrances.

10. Dasaka Nipāta

Saṃyojana Sutta (AN 10.13) - plain texts: This very short sutta lists the ten saṃyojanas.
Kasiṇa Sutta (AN 10.25) - word by word: This is the standard description of the practice on the ten kasiṇas.
Girimānanda Sutta (AN 10.60) - enhanced translation: In
order to help Girimānanda recovering from a grave illness, the Buddha
gives a great teaching reviewing ten types of very useful perceptions
that can be developped.
Kathāvatthu Sutta (AN 10.69) {excerpt} - plain texts: The Buddha reminds the bhikkhus what they should not talk about and what they should talk about.
Cunda Sutta (AN 10.176) - some info·bubbles: The buddha explains a deeper meaning of purity, in kāya, vācā and mana, not in rites or rituals and demonstrates that the former underlies the latter, whose inefficiency is made obvious.

11. Ekādasaka Nipāta

30/03/2555

Mettā Sutta (AN 11.15) - few info·bubbles: Eleven good results that come out of the practice of mettā.

http://caravandaily.com/…/indias-political-class-is-empowe…/

And Buddhism Begins where Science Ends!

Country’s Political Class Is Empowering Falsity of Intellectual Thought Against Scientific Progress

The audacity of the carelessness on display in their utterances is
phenomenal. It has meandered from implanting the head of Lord Ganesh to
the exhalation of oxygen by cows to the chastity of the peacocks. So
much so that the political class has even bludgeoned Charles Darwin’s
theory of evolution without any hesitation.

A refusal to accept
scientific norms is not wrong. Being a rational animal, a human is bound
to ask questions. But for rationality to prevail, it must also be
respected. Every scientific theory undergoes scrutiny and inquiry but
not in the language of faith, religion or cultural dogma. Science can
only be questioned by evidence that is tangible, reproducible and can
itself stand survive the almost-constant onslaught of new data. It is
this immutability that makes faith helpless in arguments against
science.

The recent advent of right-wing members in functional
democracies across the globe has seen the political class attack science
and scientists with impunity.

PROF SHAH ALAM KHAN | Caravan Daily

THE erosion of scientific temper is the hallmark of a society drifting
into obscurantism. Those who babble without evidence against the
established principles of scientific theory are the worst enemies of
science – not because their words carry the power to damage or dent the
principles they question but because they sow the seeds of doubt in
minds unaware of science as a way of life.

The recent onslaught
on scientific knowledge by the political class of our country is a
matter of grave worry. From Murderer of democratic institutions (Modi)
glorifying ‘plastic surgery’ in ancient Country to Harsh Vardhan,
science and technology minister, claiming Stephen Hawking had recognised
the superiority of the Vedas over the famous E = mc2 equation, there
has been a blitz of statements on virtually every aspect of scientific
research.

The audacity of the carelessness on display in their
utterances is phenomenal. It has meandered from implanting the head of
Lord Ganesh to the exhalation of oxygen by cows to the chastity of the
peacocks. So much so that the political class has even bludgeoned
Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution without any hesitation.

A
refusal to accept scientific norms is not wrong. Being a rational
animal, a human is bound to ask questions. But for rationality to
prevail, it must also be respected. Every scientific theory undergoes
scrutiny and inquiry but not in the language of faith, religion or
cultural dogma. Science can only be questioned by evidence that is
tangible, reproducible and can itself stand survive the almost-constant
onslaught of new data. It is this immutability that makes faith helpless
in arguments against science.

Having said this, it is not
unknown in scientific circles to accept or refute an established theory
but it is important that all new theories keep themselves open to
further scrutiny. This cycle of scrutiny and re-scrutiny in science
allows it to grow beyond the demesnes of its understanding, allowing a
scientific temper to percolate through the layers of society. The
critics of Darwin’s theory never questioned his intellectual arguments
based on their grandparents not having seen apes transform into humans,
as HRD minister Satyapal Singh recently said. Instead, they based their
arguments on the work of other scientists, such as the French naturalist
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.

Unlike faith, which relies on the unseen and the unfelt, science questions not only what it can see but also what it can’t.

That said, the falsity of intellectual thought is the worst enemy of
scientific progress. And the current onslaught by the political class
against science in our country is dangerous because it is using falsity
of as well as because it is putting faith and religion in direct
conflict with science. In a country like ours, where a large chunk of
the populace is ignorant yet deeply religious, this conflict between
opinion and fact can evolve quite dangerously.

The commonest
excuse given for propagating this falsity is religious traditions. We
are told that we are a nation of traditions, and rightly so. But being
traditional is by no means the same as being unscientific. The world’s
more scientific nations – such as China, Japan and South Korea – are
also home to rich traditions. In fact, incongruous traditions can be
tweaked by a scientific temper. When science prevails in a society, the
social only order stands to be strengthened. It is notable that in the
West, science has a better chance of prevailing in its conflict against
the Church on matters such as anti-abortion laws. Whether such a victory
would be possible in India is questionable.

The recent advent of
right-wing members in functional democracies across the globe has seen
the political class attack science and scientists with impunity. It is a
known fact that science does not go with rightist thought. Science and
its spine of evidence both stand erect in the storm of irrational ideas.

The just 0.1% intolerable, cunning, crooked, number one terrorists of
the world, violent, militant, ever shooting, lynching, lunatic, mentally
retarded Bene Israelt Paradesi chitpvan brahmin RSS (Rakshasa Rowdy
Swayam Sevaks) and all other avathars the BJP (Brashtachar Jiyadha
Psychopaths) VHP (Visha Hindutva Psychopaths), ABVP (All Brahmin Visha
Psychopaths) and instant mushrooming other avathars class in the
country is simply threatened by science. We all know what Hitler Adolf
did to science when he was in power. His scientists, including Nobel
laureates Philipp Lenard and Johannes Stark, relentlessly attacked
Albert Einstein on absurd grounds, using poor evidence to disgrace their
stature as persons of reason.

American President Donald Trump’s
disdain for climate change is another example of rightist forces
breaking from science for political gains. It appears that hostility
towards science is the essential step in establishing an anti-democratic
order, where hard evidence gives way to fairy tales and mythologies.

To expect that our political class will change for the better is to ask
for the Moon. The least that politicians can do is refrain from
commenting on matters of science. If I may, they should leave science
for minnows like us. They should remember what the first prime minister
of the country, Jawaharlal Nehru, had said about science: “It is science
alone that can solve the problems of hunger and poverty, of sanitation
and illiteracy, of superstition and deadening custom and tradition, of
vast resources running to waste, of a rich country inhabited by starving
people.”

(Shah Alam Khan is a professor in the Department of Orthopaedics at AIIMS, New Delhi. Views are personal.)

https://googleweblight.com/i…
Congress Asks Amit Shah, Yeddyurappa To Clear Stand On Lingayat Minority Status

All India Press Trust of India

Congress’s communications incharge Randeep Surjewala said the issue
should not be linked with elections or the political process.

Updated : March 20, 2018 04:32 IST

Cabinet decision was slammed by BJP, that accused Siddaramaiah of “playing with fire”
New Delhi: The Congress on Sunday asked the BJP to make its stand clear
on the Karnataka Cabinet’s decision to recommend religious minority
status to Lingayat and Veerashaiva Lingayat communities, after the party
accused Chief Minister Siddaramaiah of “playing with fire” for vote
bank politics.

Congress’s communications incharge Randeep
Surjewala said the issue should not be linked with elections or the
political process.

“It is inappropriate to link the decision of
Karnataka government viz-a-viz declaration of Lingayat Samaj as a
minority community to the political processes,” he told reporters.

Mr Surjewala asked BJP chief Amit Shah and the party’s state unit
president BS Yeddyurappa to clarify whether they are in favour of the
decision or against it.

“You need to clarify and come out
clearly. Do not hunt with the hare. That is why we have clearly said the
sinister propaganda of BJP on this issue is condemnable. For, they do
not want to speak for the fear of annoying vote bank, yet they are
opposing the demand of Lingayat samaj. It is condemnable and we dare
Shri BS Yeddyuruppa and Shri Amit Shah to clarify their position in the
open,” he said.

Mr Surjewala said the Karnataka government had
followed the due process before taking the decision. Referring to the
Jain community, which was recognized as a religious minority a few years
ago, he said Lingayats should also be accorded such status.

He
said the previous UPA Congress government had got the demand of the
community examined and due process was followed by the Siddaramaiah
dispensation. After examining historical and other evidences, the UPA
government had come to a conclusion that the Jain community was a
religious minority despite objections by the Agrawal community, which
said they were part of them.

Lingayats and Veerashaivas
constitute an estimated 17 per cent of the state’s population, and are
considered the BJP’s traditional vote base in Congress-ruled Karnataka,
which is likely to go to polls in April-May.

The Cabinet decision
was slammed by the BJP, which accused Siddaramaiah of “playing with
fire” for vote bank politics and carrying on with the “divide and rule”
policy..

https://googleweblight.com/i…

Yeddyurappa Goes Against BJP Stand on Lingayats, Says ‘I Support Mahasabha Decision’
The BJP has accused Karnataka Chief Minister Siddaramaiah of “playing
with fire for vote back politics” while Congress has said that
Yeddyurappa himself had signed on the demand to accord Lingayats an
independent religion status.

Deepa Balakrishnan | CNN-News18deepab18

Updated: March 20, 2018, 8:00 AM IST

File photo of state BJP chief B S Yeddyurappa.

Bengaluru: While the BJP on Monday slammed the Karnataka government for
its decision to recommend separate religion status for Lingayats, its
state unit chief BS Yeddyurappa seems to be in a dilemma over his take
on the issue and said that BJP stands by the all-India Veerashaiva
Mahasabha’s decision.

The BJP, on the other hand, accused
Karnataka Chief Minister Siddaramaiah of “playing with fire for vote
back politics” while Congress has said that Yeddyurappa himself had
signed on the demand to accord Lingayats an independent religion status,
him being the tallest Lingayat leader in the state.

Ending
months of speculation, the Siddaramaiah-led Congress government in
Karnataka on Monday decided to ask the Centre to recognise the Lingayats
as an independent religion and put the ball in BJP’s court.

After a marathon cabinet meeting and informal discussion with the
powerful Lingayat seers, the state government declared that it would
send the recommendation to the Centre. The state cabinet has decided to
accept the recommendations of the Justice Nagamohan Das Committee which
had asked the state to accord a separate religion tag to Lingayats.

BJP general secretary in-charge of Karnataka P Muralidhar Rao accused
the state’s ruling Congress of practising a “divide and rule” policy.

“Congress carrying ‘Divide and Rule’ legacy of Britishers in India.
Siddaramaiah ji is playing with fire for vote bank politics. Why has
Congress done this before elections? Why haven’t they done it 4 years
back?” he said in a tweet.

The Cabinet decision has put the main
opposition BJP in a fix as Lingayats are the backbone of the BJP in
Karnataka. Its CM candidate BS Yeddyurappa is also a Lingayat and the
saffron party in the state is in a dilemma.

“Now that the state
government has come up with this recommendation, the all India
Veerashaiva Mahasabha should immediately call a meeting, discuss the
pros and cons of this recommendation and be a guiding light to society.
This is my appeal,” said Yeddyurappa in his statement.

In a
significant move, the Congress government in poll-bound Karnataka on
Monday decided to recommend to the Centre granting religious minority
tag to the numerically strong and politically influential Lingayat and
Veerashaiva Lingayat communities.

The Cabinet meeting convened to
discuss the issue was chaotic, claim insiders. Some argued that it
should be called Lingayat religion and the others insisted that it
should be called Veerashaiva–Lingayat religion. However, the expert
committee had recommended that it should be called only Lingayat
religion.

Lingayats are the followers of 12th Century social
reformer and mystic Basavanna or Basaveshwara. A Brahmin by birth,
Basavanna revolted against the Hindu caste system and founded Lingayat
religion to create a casteless society.

The Veerashaivas are a
Shaiva sect and not considered a part of Lingayats. However, they insist
that they are also Lingayats and the religion should include them too.
But some scholars argue that Veerashaivas are a part of Hinduism and not
the followers of Basavanna.

—
Peace Is Doable

https://mail.yahoo.com/d/folders/1/messages/48916
21 Mar at 7:03 AM

BJP’s Forays in North Eastern States and anti Minority Agenda

Ram Puniyani

From last couple of decades one is coming across the pamphlets,
leaflets and other material containing the propaganda that Christian
missionaries are converting the people at rapid pace; the examples
mostly given have been those of the North Eastern states. This
propaganda has been extensively used at pan India level, particularly
before elections in most of the states. It is this propaganda which
formed the base of hate against Christians and we witnessed the ghastly
murder of Pastor Graham Stewart Stains, the horrific Kandhmal violence,
and low intensity anti Christian violence and attacks on Churches in
different parts of the country. So how come BJP, the party flaunting it
Ram Temple, Mother cow and Hindu nationalism could make its inroads into
an area where many states Christianity is the religion with good
presence, where beef eating is part of the people’s dietary habits and
where different tribes with diverse and clashing political interests
articulate their aspirations by forming various groups which have been
asking for separate state for their tribes.

While the situation
in each state is different, there is a pattern of BJP strategy, which in
a flexible manner, supplemented by massive resources, near perfect
electoral machinery and the backing of its parent organization’s
swayamsevaks is getting the cake in state after state. In Assam it
focused mainly on the Bangladeshi immigrants, the Muslims swamping the
state and threatening that Hindus will be reduced to a minority. It was
clever enough to strike alliances even with separatist organizations.
Most of the regional organization in the area looks at Congress as the
party which has not focused on the development work, and BJP while at
one level abuses those differing with its ideology as ‘anti nationals’,
has no compunctions at all in allying with those who have been talking
of separate state or even secession. In Tripura left government; despite
its clean record; failed to fulfill the aspirations of tribal and OBCs
in matters of reservation. It also failed miserably in creating
employment opportunities for the youth which gave the ground to BJP to
promise and create the illusion of development.

BJP here mainly
harped on two major factors. One is the promise of development. As by
now its claims of development all over the country stand exposed as mere
vote catching slogans, in North East they still could sell Modi as a
development man. Manik Sarkar’s failure to implement the new pay
commissions must have hurt the large numbers as they are still stuck at
fourth pay commission while talk of seventh pay commission is in the
air. In Tripura, they could also harp on ‘Hindus are Refugees: Muslim is
infiltrators’ to influence the Bengali Hindu votes. In tribal area, RSS
swayamsevaks working consistently by organizing religious functions,
opening schools etc. from long time have succeeded in turning the
tables, as Manik Sarkar Government failed to address the needs of
Tribal’s in matters of opportunities. In matters of beef, BJP openly
took a hypocritical line that their ban on cow slaughter and eating
beef, which is being imposed in different parts of country; will not be
enforced in North East. As such also one knows that like most of the
issues raised by RSS-BJP, holy cow is a political tool for dividing the
society and when the crunch comes they manipulate the issue as they have
done in Kerala and Goa on the issue of beef and cow slaughter.

In a very loud manner, towering over Christian voters, Mr. Modi talked
of rescuing 46 nurses in ISIS captivity in Iraq and Father Alex
Premkumar from Taliban captivity. What can one say on these issues? Were
they rescued as they were Indians or were they rescued because they
belong to a particular religion? As is the wont with Modi type politics,
they do take advantage of these incidents in a crass political manner.
Despite the fact that their ideology regards Christians and Muslims as
foreigners they do at the same time manipulate these identities for
electoral gains. In Tripura the majority of Congress and TMC MLAS
migrated to BJP as well as the electoral support shifted to BJP. What
worked for BJP here was the anti Bangladeshi sentiment along with the
illusory promise of development.

In Meghalaya, the situation is
different. Though Congress did emerge as the single largest party and
logically is should have been given the chance to form the Government,
the Hindu nationalist Governor, thought otherwise and the second largest
party, in alliance with practically everybody including BJP are going
to form the Government. Here the failure of BJP to win over electorate
is writ large on the results, what is putting them in the camp of power,
is the alliance with a regional party, which has not been having
amicable attitude and relations to Congress. The role of BJP’s all round
clout including money and muscle is the undercurrent of the story.

There is lot of lessons for left in Tripura to learn. Issue of
addressing problems of youth, Tribal and OBC are paramount. In addition
the issue of BJP manipulating in all possible ways to come to power is
something, which can be ignored at the risk of severe declines in the
electoral power of the left and other parties. What is being labeled as
Karat line, not allying with Congress, will surely decimate the left in
times to come, probably sooner than later, as this line underestimates
the potential and the deeper agenda of BJP-RSS. It ignores the threat of
powerful electoral machine built by BJP over a period of time and its
capability to manipulate issues, like beef and conversion by Christian
missionaries, is different parts of the country, taking two opposite
positions and getting away with it!

The emotive politics
unleashed by BJP RSS is visible again in the form of attacking Lenin’s
statue and attacks on CPM workers. What is in store for future of the
region if democratic forces don’t rise to the occasion is anybody’s
guess!

No means no, says judge and convicts lawyer for harassing female colleague #Goodnews

Posted by :kamayani On : March 20, 2018

Category:
Advocacy, Human Rights, Justice, Kractivism, Law, Violence against Women, Women Rights

THANE: “No means no.” The Thane magistrate court recently said these words while convicting a 45-year-old practising lawyer and sentencing him to three years’ rigorous imprisonment for “outraging the modesty” of a colleague who repeatedly rejected his marriage proposal.
Magistrate R T Ingale on Monday held advocate Rajendra Galange guilty of pestering the female lawyer with a marriage proposal despite her clear rejection of it.

“When a woman says no, it is really a no. But some men take it as a
yes and repeat themselves,” said magistrate Ingale while sentencing
Galange for causing mental and physical trauma to the female advocate.

Additional public prosecutor Rashmi Kshirsagar told the court that
the female lawyer, who is divorced, practises in Thane court. “She had
uploaded her profile on a matrimonial website for remarriage. The
accused initially sent his proposal online but she turned it down.”

Galange is said to have then waylaid her at the Kalyan
court complex and once again proposed marriage, which she politely
refused. He continued to call her on her phone several times, forcing
her to block his number. “On September 16, 2013, the complainant was at
her office in Naupada,
when Galange walked in around 9.15pm and once again proposed marriage.
He then went on to hurl abuses at her and threaten her. Those present in
the office intervened and the accused was taken to the police station
where an offence was registered,” said Kshirsagar.

The defence lawyer argued that the office of an advocate is
accessible to everyone. The magistrate, though, said it is not a public
place, it is a private office and permission is required to enter it.
“If the analogy of the defence is accepted, then the office of an
advocate may be open for public and this would not be accepted.”

When the complainant repeatedly rejected the accused’s proposal, it
implied her refusal to him to enter her office, said the magistrate. It
therefore amounts to trespassing. In his order, the magistrate further
said, “It is brought to my notice that even after her insistence, the
accused approached the complainant and threatened that she withdraw the
case.”

The accused was convicted under Indian Penal Code
sections 452 (house trespass after preparation for hurt, assault or
wrongful restraint), 509 (word, gesture or act intended to insult the
modesty of a woman) and 504 (intentional insult with an intent to
provoke breach of peace.

https://www.news18.com/…/lingayat-seers-amp-up-pressure-on-…

Lingayat Seers Amp up Pressure on Siddaramaiah for Separate Religion Status, Veerashaivas Oppose it

The
issue of a separate religion for Lingayats has put the Siddaramaiah
government in a bind. With over 50 Lingayat seers, led by the Mathe
Mahadevi, meeting the Chief Minister to press for an early decision, the
pressure is mounting on the state government to recommend a separate
religion status for Lingayats to the Centre.

Deepa Balakrishnan | CNN-News18deepab18Updated:March 18, 2018, 6:57 PM IST

Lingayat
Seers Amp up Pressure on Siddaramaiah for Separate Religion Status,
Veerashaivas Oppose it The Lingayat seers meeting Karnataka CM
Siddaramaiah to press for a separate religion status for their
community.

Bengaluru: The issue of
a separate religion for Lingayats has put the Siddaramaiah government
in a bind. With over 50 Lingayat seers, led by the Mathe Mahadevi,
meeting the Chief Minister to press for an early decision, the pressure
is mounting on the state government to recommend a separate religion
status for Lingayats to the Centre.

This
comes just three days after another group of seers of the Veerashaiva
community met the CM, to demand that Lingayats should not be considered a
separate religion as Veerashaivas and Lingayats are two sects with the
same beliefs.

Sunday’s meeting
though wanted the CM to act immediately on the report of the
government-appointed committee, headed by a retired judge, which felt
there was enough credible evidence to look at Lingayats as a separate
religious entity along the lines of Buddhism or Islam.

The state cabinet is to decide on the issue at its meeting on Monday afternoon.

While
the Lingayat community says they are the true followers of saint
Basaveshwara, who advocated a casteless society, and distance themselves
from Hinduism, and want to be treated as minorities on a par with Jains
and Buddhists; the Veerashaiva seers, on the other hand, have told the
CM that both communities are one and the same, and they both worship
Lord Shiva.

The Veerashaiva say
if their memorandum is not considered, they would launch a protest
against the Congress party in the coming days. It further said that
people from all walks of life would participate in the protest.

The
Lingayat seers, who came from all across Karnataka and held a
satyagraha ahead of their meeting with the CM, said they too will decide
on their future course of action if the Cabinet does not respond with a
“positive decision on being considered a separate entity” on Monday.
They even held a padayatra from the CM’s house shouting slogans in
support of their demands, and said their collective leadership will
decide the way forward.

“The
Veerashaiva swamis are ‘hijack swamis.’ The government committee report
in fact makes a distinction between the Veerashaivas and the Lingayats
very beautifully. Islam may have two sects — the Sunnis, the Shia, both
of whom hold the Quran as holy. Jains may have Swethambaras and
Digambaras, both of who go by the same preachings and guru. But
Lingayats go by the Vachanas as our holy scriptures, we believe in a
totally non-discriminatory society without caste and gender biases; this
is not true of Veerashaivas, they are different,” said Dr Shivamurthy
Muruga swami of the Muruga mutt. They need the government to give a
final shape to their identity, he added.

Mathe
Mahadevi, who spoke to the media right after the meeting with the CM,
also said that certain fears that recommending for a separate religion
status may lead to violence or rioting were unfounded, and the
government should not yield to such reports.

“He
has said he is yet to consult the Advocate General, that’s the only
thing left,” she said. She is the first female ‘Jagadguru’ or spiritual
leader of the community.

The seers
have put the government in a dilemma. Until now, Lingayats, who form a
significant votebank in Karnataka, have been perceived as supporters of
the BJP as it is headed by a Lingayat, BS Yeddyurappa. Under the
circumstances, the Congress government had thought division within the
community on this issue could yield them electoral gains.

However,
with demands from religious leaders on both sides, this is turning out
to be an issue that could boomerang on the Siddaramaiah government,
which is why the government has been putting off a decision on it for
many weeks now..

–

Peace Is Doable

Lingayat Seers Amp up Pressure on Siddaramaiah for Separate Religion Status, Veerashaivas Oppose it

The
issue of a separate religion for Lingayats has put the Siddaramaiah
government in a bind. With over 50 Lingayat seers, led by the Mathe
Mahadevi, meeting the Chief…

news18.com

https://in.news.yahoo.com/karnataka-grants-separate-religio…

Karnataka grants separate religion status to Lingayat community
Yahoo India Team Yahoo IndiaYahoo India19 March 2018

Ahead of state assembly elections, the Siddaramaiah-led Congress
government in Karnataka on Monday approved the recommendations for a
separate religion status for Lingayats.
The Karnataka Cabinet after
okaying the move will now write to the Union government seeking separate
religion status for Lingayat.

The ball is now in the central
government’s court which will have to decide if Lingayats can be
recognized as belonging to an independent religion or not.

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ANI
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@ANI
Karnataka Govt has accepted suggestions of Nagbhushan committee;
cabinet has given nod to the recommendation of separate religion for
Lingayat community
3:04 PM - Mar 19, 2018
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After a separate flag for the state, this is the second such move before the crucial elections by the Karnataka government.

The Siddaramaiah government’s decision comes a day after a group of
Lingayat seers met the Chief Minister and urged him to implement the
report of the committee.

The demand for a separate religion tag
to Veerashaiva/Lingayat faiths had surfaced from the numerically strong
and politically-influential community, amidst resentment from within
over projecting the two communities as the same.

While one
section led by Akhila Bharata Veerashaiva Mahasabha had demanded
separate religion status, asserting that Veerashaiva and Lingayats are
the same, the other wanted it only for Lingayats as it believes that
Veerashaivasare one among the seven sects of Shaivas, which is part of
Hinduism.

The BJP — whose state unit president and CM face BS
Yeddyurappa is a Lingayat — has maintained a cautious stance on the
issue. It has accused the Siddaramaiah government of dividing the
society to draw political mileage ahead of the assembly elections this
year.

Lingayats are the followers of 12th-century social reformer
and mystic Basavanna or Basaveshwara, who revolted against the caste
system in Hinduism. Basavanna was a Brahmin, but he opposed Brahminical
practices and hegemony by founding a casteless religion called
“Lingayats”. They worship Shiva Linga and are not supposed to follow any
Hindu rituals. Over 18% population in Karnataka is Lingayat. (Inputs:
News18 and Agencies)

Karnataka grants separate religion status to Lingayat community

Ahead
of state assembly elections, the Siddaramaiah-led Congress government
in Karnataka on Monday approved the recommendations for a separate
religion status…

in.news.yahoo.com

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitpavan

These Chitpavans felt out of place with the Indian social reform
movement of Phule and the mass politics of Gandhi. Large numbers of the
community looked to Savarkar, the Hindu Mahasabha and finally the RSS. Gandhi’s assassins, Narayan Apte and Nathuram Godse, drew their inspiration from fringe groups in this reactionary trend.

The Bene Israel claim that Chitpavans are also of Jewish origin.

Chitpavan immigrants began arriving en masse
from the Konkan to Pune where the Peshwa offered all important offices
to his fellow castemen. The Chitpavan kin were rewarded with tax relief
and grants of land. Historians cite nepotism and corruption as causes of
the fall of the Maratha Empire in 1818. Richard Maxwell
Eaton states that this rise of the Chitpavans is a classic example of
social rank rising with political fortune.The haughty behaviour by the
upstart Chitpavans caused
conflicts with other communities which manifested itself as late as in
1948 in the form of anti-Brahminism after the killing of Mahatma Gandhi
by Nathuram Godse, a Chitpavan.

Nathuram Godse

The Peshwa rule forced untouchability treatment on the Mahars. As a result Mahars served in the armies of the East India company On 1 January 1818 in the Battle of Koregaon
between forces of the East India Company and the Peshwa, Mahars
soldiers formed the biggest contingent of the Company force. The battle
effectively ended Peshwa rule.

Battle of Koregaon

A 28,000-strong force led by Peshwa Baji Rao II whilst on their way to attack the company-held Pune, were unexpe…

Untouchability

The term is commonly associated with treatment of the Dalit communities, who are considered “polluting” among th…

Mahar

Role in Indian politics
After the fall of the Maratha Empire in 1818, the Chitpavans lost their
political dominance to the British. The British would not subsidize the
Chitpavans on the same scale that their caste-fellow, the Peshwas, had
done in the past. Pay and power was now significantly reduced. Poorer
Chitpavan students adapted and started learning English because of
better opportunities in the British administration.

Some of the prominent figures in the Hindu reform movements of the 19th and 20th centuries came from the Chitpavan Brahmin community. These included Dhondo Keshav Karve, Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade,Vinayak Damodar Savarkar Gopal Ganesh Agarkar,Vinoba Bhave^.

Some of the strongest resistance to change came from the very same
community. The vanguard and the old guard clashed many times. D. K.
Karve was ostracised. Even Tilak offered penance for breaking caste or
religious rules. One was for taking tea at Poona Christian mission in
1892 and the second was going to England in 1919^.

The Chitpavan community includes two major politicians in the Gandhian tradition: Gopal Krishna Gokhale,
whom Gandhi acknowledged as a preceptor, and Vinoba Bhave, one of his
outstanding disciples. Gandhi describes Bhave as the “jewel of his
disciples”, and recognised Gokhale as his political guru. However,
strong opposition to Gandhi came from the Chitpavan community. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, the founder of the Hindu nationalist political ideology Hindutva,
was a Chitpavan Brahmin and several other Chitpavans were among the
first to embrace it because they thought it was a logical extension of
the legacy of the Peshwas and caste-fellow Tilak,.These Chitpavans felt out of place with the Indian social reform
movement of Phule and the mass politics of Gandhi. Large numbers of the
community looked to Savarkar, the Hindu Mahasabha and finally the RSS. Gandhi’s assassins, Narayan Apte and Nathuram Godse, drew their inspiration from fringe groups in this reactionary trend.

Gopal Krishna Gokhale

Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh

Founded on 27 September 1925, it claimed a commitment to selfless service to India.[17] The organisation is the …

Narayan Apte

Narayan Dattatraya Apte (1911 – 15 November 1949) was an Indian activist and entrepreneur who was executed for h…

Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha

The organisation was formed to protect the rights of the Hindu community in British India, after the formation o…

Hindutva

Many Indian social scientists[1] have described the Hindutva movement as fascist, adhering to the concept of hom…

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar

Savarkar’s revolutionary activities began while studying in India and England, where he was associated with the …

Gandhism

The term “Gandhism” also encompasses what Gandhi’s ideas, words and actions mean to people around the world, and…

Chitpavan

Chitpavan

Bene Israel

Bene Israel

In the early part of the twentieth century, many Bene Israel became active in the new film industry, as actresse…

Bene Israel

Not to be confused with Bani Isra’il or Beta Israel.

Bene Israel

Languages

Traditionally, Marathi; those in Israel, mostly Hebrew
English, Gujarati, Malayalam, Hindi^[1]

Religion

Judaism

Related ethnic groups

Cochin Jews, Baghdadi Jews, Marathi people

The Bene Israel (”Sons of Israel”), formerly known in India as the “Native Jew Caste”,^[2] are a historic community of Jews in India. It has been suggested^[3] that it is made up of descendants of one of the disputed Lost Tribes and ancestors who had settled there centuries ago. In the 19th century, after the people were taught about normative (Ashkenazi/Sephardi) Judaism, they tended to migrate from villages in the Konkan area^[4] to the nearby cities, primarily Mumbai,^[3] but also to Pune, Ahmedabad, and Kolkata, India; and Karachi, in today’s Pakistan.^[5] Many gained positions with the British colonial authority of the period.

In the early part of the twentieth century, many Bene Israel became
active in the new film industry, as actresses and actors, producers and
directors. After India gained its independence in 1947, and Israel was
established in 1948, most Bene Israel emigrated to Israel, Canada and other Commonwealth countries and the United States.

History

Bene Israel teachers of the Free Church of Scotland’s Mission School and the Jewish English School in Bombay, 1856

Some historians have thought their ancestors may have belonged to one of the Lost Tribes of Israel,^[6]
but the Bene Israel have never been officially recognized by Jewish
authorities as such. According to Bene Israel tradition, their ancestors
migrated to India after centuries of travel through western Asia from
Israel and gradually assimilated to the people around them, while
keeping some Jewish customs.^[7] The medieval Jewish philosopher Maimonides mentioned in a letter that there was a Jewish community living in India: he may have been referring to the Bene Israel.^[8]

At a point in history which is uncertain, an Indian Jew from Cochin named David Rahabi discovered the Bene Israel in their villages and recognized their vestigial Jewish customs.^[9]
Rahabi taught the people about normative Judaism. He trained some young
men among them to be the religious preceptors of the community.^[10] Known as Kajis, these men held a position that became hereditary, similar to the Cohanim. They became recognized as judges and settlers of disputes within the community.^[11]

One Bene Israel tradition places Rahabi’s arrival at around 1000 or
1400, although some historians believe he was not active until the 18th
century. They suggest that the “David Rahabi” of Bene Israel folklore
was a man named David Ezekiel Rahabi, who lived from 1694 to 1772, and
resided in Cochin, then the center of the wealthy Malabar Jewish community.^[12]^[13]^[14] Others suggest that the reference is to David Baruch Rahabi, who arrived in Bombay from Cochin in 1825.^[15]

It is estimated that there were 6,000 Bene Israel in the 1830s;
10,000 at the turn of the 20th century; and in 1948—their peak in
India—they numbered 20,000.^[16] Since that time, most of the population have emigrated.

Under British colonial rule, many Bene Israel rose to prominence in India^{[citation needed]}.
They were less affected than other Indians by the racially
discriminatory policies of the British colonists, considered somewhat
outside the masses^{[citation needed]}.They gained higher, better paying posts in the British Army when compared with their non-Jewish neighbours.^[7] Some of these enlistees with their families later joined the British in the British Protectorate of Aden.^[17] In the 19th century, the Bene Israel did however meet with hostility from the newly anglicized Baghdadi Jews who considered the Bene Israel to be “Indian”.They also questioned the Jewishness of the community^[18]

In the early twentieth century, numerous Bene Israel became leaders
in the new film industry in India. In addition, men worked as producers
and actors: Ezra Mir
(alias Edwin Myers) (1903-1993) became the first chief of India’s Film
Division, and Solomon Moses was head of the Bombay Film Lab Pvt Ltd from
the 1940s to 1990s.^[19] Ennoch Isaac Satamkar was a film actor and assistant director to Mehboob Khan, a prominent director of Hindi films.^[20]

Given their success under the British colonial government, many Bene Israel prepared to leave India at independence in 1947. They believed that nationalism and the emphasis on indigenous religions would mean fewer opportunities for them. Most emigrated to Israel,^[21] which was newly established in 1948 as a Jewish homeland.^[22]^[23]

Bene Israel

In the early part of the twentieth century, many Bene Israel became active in the new film industry, as actresse…

2566 Tue 20 Mar 2018 LESSON Buddha Vacana — The words of the Buddha — in 26 Classical Filipino Analysis: Should pupils be able use their own computers in the exam hall? Is Examination Really The True Test Of Knowledge? Should students be permitted to use personal technology at school? Prabuddha Bharat is the largest territory which is gobbled by predatory Paradesi Bene Israeli 0.1% intolerant, cunning, crooked, number one terrorists of the world, violent, militant, ever shooting, lynching, lunatic, mentally retarded chitpavan brahmin RSS (Rowdy Rakshasa Swayam Sevaks) and all its avathars Brashtachar Jiyadha Psychopaths (BJP), VHP (Visha Hindutva Psychopaths) ABVP (All Brahmin Vishs Psychopaths) and other instant mashrooming avathar forces full of hatred, anger, jealousy, delusion which are defilement of the mind requiring mental treatment in mental asylums. They are working against 99.9% Sarvajan Samaj including SC/STs/OBCs/Converted Religious Minorities who are the aboriginal inhabitants of this country who are now unbited and organised against these paradesi chitpavan brahmins as they gobbled the Master Key by tampering the fraud EVMs. If Ballot papers are used in elections after dissolving the central and state governments which are selected by these fraud EVMs that negated the Universal Adult Franchise guaranteed by our Marvelous Modern Constitution will get less than 0.1% votes. Yet the Sarvajan Samaj is happy, well and secure! They are calm,quiet, alert, attentive and have equanimity mind with a clear understanding that everything is changing! “We alone can challenge and defeat the casteist, communal and pro-capitalist BJP! Get ready!” said Behanji Ms Mayawati to the BSP workers to liberate the country from the clutches of fascist rule.

03/19/18

Filed under: General
Posted by: site admin @ 7:46 pm

2566 Tue 20 Mar 2018 LESSON

Buddha Vacana
— The words of the Buddha —

in 26 Classical Filipino

Analysis: Should pupils be able use their own computers in the exam hall?

Is Examination Really The True Test Of Knowledge?

Should students be permitted to use personal technology at school?

Prabuddha Bharat is the largest territory which is
gobbled by predatory Paradesi Bene Israeli 0.1% intolerant, cunning,
crooked, number one terrorists of the world, violent, militant, ever
shooting, lynching, lunatic, mentally retarded chitpavan brahmin RSS
(Rowdy Rakshasa Swayam Sevaks) and all its avathars Brashtachar Jiyadha
Psychopaths (BJP), VHP (Visha Hindutva Psychopaths) ABVP (All Brahmin
Vishs Psychopaths) and other instant mashrooming avathar forces full of
hatred, anger, jealousy, delusion which are defilement of the mind
requiring mental treatment in mental asylums. They are working against
99.9% Sarvajan Samaj including SC/STs/OBCs/Converted Religious
Minorities who are the aboriginal inhabitants of this country who are
now unbited and organised against these paradesi chitpavan brahmins as
they gobbled the Master Key by tampering the fraud EVMs. If Ballot
papers are used in elections after dissolving the central and state
governments which are selected by these fraud EVMs that negated the
Universal Adult Franchise guaranteed by our Marvelous Modern
Constitution will get less than 0.1% votes. Yet the Sarvajan Samaj is
happy, well and secure! They are calm,quiet, alert, attentive and have
equanimity mind with a clear understanding that everything is changing!

“We alone can challenge and defeat the casteist, communal and pro-capitalist BJP! Get ready!”
said Behanji Ms Mayawati to the BSP workers to liberate the country from the clutches of fascist rule.

https://www.youtube.com/watch…
Jin Long Uen & Song Huei Liou - Hanshan Temple

Jin Long Uen & Song Huei Liou - Hanshan Temple

Nidāna Sutta (AN 3.112) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Anim na dahilan, tatlong nakapagpapalusog at tatlong masasamang bagay, sa paglitaw ng kamma.
Kammapatha Sutta (AN 3.164) - salita ayon sa salita
    Ipinakita dito na ang pagtingin na kung saan walang mali sa pagiging di-vegetarian ay mali.

—— oooOooo ——

4. Catukka Nipāta

Yoga Sutta (AN 4.10) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Ang ibig sabihin ng Buddha kapag siya ay nagsasalita tungkol sa yoga at yogakkhema (pahinga mula sa pamatok).
Padhāna Sutta (AN 4.13) - salita ayon sa salita
    Sa ganitong sutta, ang Buddha ay nagbibigay ng isang kahulugan ng sammappadhānas.
Aparihāniya Sutta (AN 4.37) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Apat na simpleng gawi na nagagawa ng isang walang kaya sa pagbagsak, sa harapan ng Nibbana.
Samādhibhāvanā Sutta (AN 4.41) - salita ayon sa salita
    Ang
    apat na uri ng konsentrasyon na pinuri ng Buddha. Ito ay lubos
    halata dito na walang malinaw na pagkakaiba sa pagitan ng samādhi at
    paññā.
Vipallāsa Sutta (AN 4.49) - salita ayon sa salita
    Sa ganitong sutta, inilarawan ng Buddha ang apat na pagbaluktot ng saññā, citta at diṭṭhi.
Appamāda Sutta (AN 4.116) - simpleng pagsasalin
    Apat na mga pagkakataon kung saan ang isa ay dapat magsanay nang may katapatan.
Ārakkha Sutta (AN 4.117) - simpleng pagsasalin
    Apat na mga bagay na dapat isagawa sa katatagan, pagka-isip habang pinoprotektahan ang isip.
Mettā Sutta (AN 4.125) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Dito
    Ipinaliliwanag ng Buddha kung anong uri ng muling pagsilang ang isang taong lubusang nagsasagawa
    ang apat na Brahmavihāras ay maaaring asahan, at ang mahusay na bentahe ng pagiging kanya
    alagad.
Asubha Sutta (AN 4.163) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Ang
    apat na paraan ng pagsasanay, ayon sa uri ng pagsasanay na pinili at
    ang intensity o kahinaan ng mga kalakasan at espirituwal na mga katotohanan.
Abhiññā Sutta (AN 4.254) - walang pagsasalin
    Paano gumagana ang Noble Path sa abhiññā na tumutukoy sa iba’t ibang
dhammas bilang guest-house na nakakausap ng iba’t ibang uri ng mga
bisita.
Arañña Sutta (AN 4.262) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Anong uri ng tao ang angkop na manirahan sa ilang?

—— oooOooo ——

5. Pañcaka Nipāta

26 Classical Filipino

Kesamutti [aka Kālāmā] Sutta (AN 3.66) - woord voor woord
    In
    deze beroemde sutta, de Boeddha herinnert ons eraan om uiteindelijk alleen onze te vertrouwen
    een directe ervaring van de werkelijkheid hebben, niet wat door anderen wordt verklaard,
    zelfs als ze toevallig onze ‘gerespecteerde leraar’ zijn.
Sāḷha Sutta (AN 3.67) - verbeterde vertaling
    Het advies dat hier wordt gegeven, lijkt veel op dat van de Kalama’s.
Aññatitthiya Sutta (AN 3.69) - verbeterde vertaling
    De
    drie wortels van het ongezonde worden uitgelegd met hun respect
    karakteristiek, de oorzaak van hun ontstaan en de manier om dit tot stand te brengen
    hun stopzetting.
Uposatha Sutta (AN 3.71) - verbeterde vertaling
    In deze sutta definieert de Boeddha hoe leken Upasatha moeten beoefenen en de verschillende soorten deva’s beschrijven.
Sīlabbata Sutta (AN 3.79) - verbeterde vertaling
    Ānanda legt uit waardoor heel eenvoudige creteria-rituelen en -rituelen als nuttig kunnen worden beoordeeld of niet.
Samaṇa Sutta (AN 3.82) - verbeterde vertaling
    Hier zijn de drie ascetics-taken van een asceet.
Vajjiputta Sutta (AN 3.85) - verbeterde vertaling
    EEN
    bepaalde monniken kunnen niet met zoveel regels trainen. De Boeddha legt hem uit
    hoe hij zonder hen kan en dat gaat best goed.
Sikkhattaya Sutta (AN 3.90) - woord voor woord
    De Boeddha definieert de drie trainingen, d.w.z. adhisīlasikkhā, adhicittasikkhā en adhipaññāsikkhā.
Accāyika Sutta (AN 3.93) - verbeterde vertaling
    Drie dringende taken van een asceet die als drie dringende taken van een boer zijn.
Sikkhattaya Sutta (AN 3.91) - woord voor woord
    Hier geeft de Boeddha een alternatieve definitie van adhipaññāsikkhā.
Paṃsudhovaka Sutta (AN 3.102) - enkele informatie · bubbels
    In
    deze sutta, de Boeddha vergelijkt de verwijdering van mentale onzuiverheden
    door de beoefening tot het werk van een goudsmid. Het is bijzonder
    interessant, omdat het een geleidelijke uiteenzetting van de onzuiverheden oplevert
    men heeft te maken met tijdens de oefening, wat een handig gegeven is
    referentie.
Nimitta Sutta (AN 3.103) - enkele informatie · bubbels
    Do
    je merkt dat je wegknikt of heel geagiteerd raakt tijdens je
    meditatie praktijk? Dit is een zeer nuttig discours voor de mediteerders
    die de twee overeenkomstige spirituele vermogens van de inspanning in evenwicht willen brengen
    en concentratie, samen met gelijkmoedigheid. Velen van ons zouden profiteren
    aanzienlijk van het correct toepassen van deze instructies.
Ruṇṇa Sutta (AN 3.108) - woord voor woord
    Hier
    de Boeddha legt uit wat er zingt en danst in de discipline van
    de edelen, en geeft vervolgens zijn instrunction over lachen en
    glimlachend.
Atitti Sutta (AN 3.109) - verbeterde vertaling
    Drie verkeerde dingen, waarvan velen helaas dol zijn, die nooit tot verzadiging kunnen leiden.

Vitthata Sutta (AN 5.2) - walang pagsasalin
    Dito tinukoy ng Buddha ang detalye kung ano ang tawag niya sa limang
    Sekha-balas (strenghs ng isa sa pagsasanay). Ang sutta na ito ay madali
    naiintindihan nang hindi nangangailangan ng parallel na pagsasalin, kung sumangguni ka
    ang Satta saddhammā Formulas na iminumungkahi sa teksto. Available din ang Pali-English Dictionary, kung sakali.
Vitthata Sutta (AN 5.14) - salita ayon sa salita
    Narito ang tinukoy na limang balas.
Samādhi Sutta (AN 5.27) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Limang uplifting knowledges na nangyari sa isa na gawi ang walang hanggan konsentrasyon.
Akusalarāsi Sutta (AN 5.52) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Magsalita nang tama, ano ang dapat na tinatawag na ‘akumulasyon ng demerit’?
Abhiṇhapaccavekkhitabbaṭhāna Sutta (AN 5.57) {sipi} - salita sa pamamagitan ng salita
    Kung paano isaalang-alang ang sariling kamma.
Anāgatabhaya Sutta (AN 5.80) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Ang
    Ipinaaalala sa Buddha ang mga monghe na ang pagsasagawa ng Dhamma ay hindi dapat ilagay
    para sa isang mas huling petsa, dahil walang mga garantiya na ang magiging hinaharap
    magbigay ng anumang mga pagkakataon para sa pagsasanay.
Sekha Sutta (AN 5.89) - walang pagsasalin
    Ang
    Ipinaaalala sa atin ng Buddha ang limang bagay na lumala sa pagsasanay, na
    para sa sinumang nagnanais na sumulong sa pagsasanay ay halos mahalaga
    upang malaman, tandaan at isama sa aming lifestyles bilang
    kaalaman tungkol sa limang pamantayan nīvaraṇas.
Sekha Sutta (AN 5.90) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Limang attitudes na humantong sa pagkasira ng pagsasanay.
Sutadhara Sutta (AN 5.96) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Limang katangian ang namumuno na nagsasagawa ng pag-iisip ng paghinga sa pagpapalaya sa loob ng mahabang panahon.
Kathā Sutta (AN 5.97) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Limang katangian ang namumuno na nagsasagawa ng pag-iisip ng paghinga sa pagpapalaya sa loob ng mahabang panahon.
Āraññaka Sutta (AN 5.98) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Limang katangian ang namumuno na nagsasagawa ng pag-iisip ng paghinga sa pagpapalaya sa loob ng mahabang panahon.
Andhakavinda Sutta (AN 5.114) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Limang bagay na inihatid ng Buddha sa kanyang bagong ordinadong mga monghe.
Samayavimutta Sutta (AN 5.149) - walang pagsasalin
    Limang mga kundisyon kung saan ang isa na nakakuha ng ‘paminsan-minsang pagpapalaya’ ay mag-backslide.
Samayavimutta Sutta (AN 5.150) - walang pagsasalin
    Ang isa pang set ng limang kondisyon na kung saan ang isa na nakakuha ng ‘paminsan-minsang pagpapalaya’ ay mag-backslide.
Vaṇijjā Sutta (AN 5.177) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Tinutukoy ng Buddha dito ang limang trades na hindi dapat dalhin sa
pamamagitan ng kanyang mga tagasunod, kung saan ang negosyo ng karne.
Gihī Sutta (AN 5.179) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Sa
    ito sutta, ang Buddha ay nagbibigay ng higit na katumpakan tungkol sa paraan kung saan
    ang apat na karaniwang sotāpattiyaṅgas ay dapat na internalized upang
    bumubuo sa tamang kondisyon para sa sotāpatti.
Nissāraṇīya Sutta (AN 5.200) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Ang sutta na ito ay nagtatanggal ng limang uri ng nissāraṇas.

—— oooOooo ——

8. Aṭṭhaka Nipāta

Nanda Sutta (AN 8.9) {sipi} - salita sa pamamagitan ng salita
    Inilalarawan ng Buddha kung paano si Nanda, bagama’t biktima ng mabangis
    pakiramdam ng pagnanais, mga gawi nang may katalinuhan alinsunod sa kanyang mga tagubilin.
    Ang sutta na ito ay naglalaman ng kahulugan ng satisampajañña.
Mahānāma Sutta (AN 8.25) {sipi} - salita sa pamamagitan ng salita
    Si Mahānāma ay nagtanong sa Buddha upang tukuyin kung ano ang isang
lay follower at sa kung ano ang paggalang isang lay tagasunod ay
inaasahan na maging banal.
Anuruddhamahāvitakka Sutta (AN 8.30) - ilang impormasyon · mga bula
    Pitong
    matalino na mga saloobin na tunay na nararapat sa pang-unawa at pag-alaala
    sa ven. Anuruddha. Dumating ang Buddha sa kanya upang turuan siya ng ikawalong,
    pinagkalooban kung saan siya ay makamit ang direksyon. Ipinaliliwanag ng Buddha
    sa detalyadong kahulugan ng mga iniisip.
Abhisanda Sutta (AN 8.39) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Narito ang walong paraan kung saan ang lahat ng mga seryosong alagad
ng Buddha ay lumikha ng maraming merito para sa kanilang sarili.
Duccaritavipāka Sutta (AN 8.40) - ilang impormasyon · mga bula
    Inilalarawan ng sutta na ito ang uri ng pagdurusa na sinasabayan ng isa dahil sa hindi pagmamasid sa pangunahing mga utos.
Saṅkhitta Sutta (AN 8.53) - salita ayon sa salita
    Ang Buddha ay nagbibigay dito sa kanyang dating nars na may walong pamantayan sa
    itanghal kung ang isang pahayag ay kabilang sa kanyang pagtuturo o hindi,
    na maaaring mangyari na maging madaling-gamiting ngayong mga araw na ito.
Dīghajāṇu Sutta (AN 8.54) {sipi} - mga plain text
    Sa iba pang mga bagay, ang Buddha ay tumutukoy sa sutta na ito kung
ano ang ibig sabihin nito sa pamamagitan ng pagkabukas-palad.
Vimokkha Sutta (AN 8.66) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Isang paliwanag ng walong vimokkhas (liberasyon).
Parihāna Sutta (AN 8.79) - walang pagsasalin
    Ipinaliliwanag ng Buddha kung alin ang walong dhammas na humahantong sa pagkasira ng isang bhikkhu sa ilalim ng pagsasanay.

—— oooOooo ——

9. Navaka Nipāta

Nāga Sutta (AN 9.40) - mga plain text
    Ito sutta, kulay na may banayad na katatawanan, nagpapaliwanag kung paano ang isang bhikkhu ng
    Ang taas na pag-iisip ay maihahambing sa isang nag-iisa na elepante, na kapuwa ay
    kadalasang tinatawag na Nāga.
Tapussa Sutta (AN 9.41) {sipi} - mga plain text
    Dito saññā · vedayita · nirodha, ang pagtigil ng saññā at vedanā ay iniharap bilang ika-siyam na jhāna.
Sikkhādubbalya Sutta (AN 9.63) - salita ayon sa salita
    Kung ano ang gagawin kung ang isa ay hindi pa perpekto sa limang mga tuntunin.
Nīvaraṇa Sutta (AN 9.64) - salita ayon sa salita
    Paano tanggalin ang limang hindrances.

—— oooOooo ——

10. Dasaka Nipāta

Saṃyojana Sutta (AN 10.13) - mga plain text
    Inilalarawan ng maikling maikling sutta ang sampung saṃyojanas.
Kasiṇa Sutta (AN 10.25) - salita ayon sa salita
    Ito ang karaniwang paglalarawan ng pagsasanay sa sampung kasiyahan.
Girimānanda Sutta (AN 10.60) - pinahusay na pagsasalin
    Sa
    upang tulungan si Girimānanda na mabawi mula sa isang malubhang karamdaman, ang Buddha
    ay nagbibigay ng isang mahusay na pagtuturo na sinusuri ang sampung uri ng mga kapaki-pakinabang na pananaw
    na maaaring maitayo.
Kathāvatthu Sutta (AN 10.69) {sipi} - mga plain na teksto
    Ang Buddha ay nagpapaalala sa mga bhikkus kung ano ang hindi nila dapat pag-usapan at kung ano ang dapat nilang pag-usapan.
Cunda Sutta (AN 10.176) - ilang impormasyon · mga bula
    Ang buddha ay nagpapaliwanag ng mas malalim na kahulugan ng
kadalisayan, sa kāya, vācā at mana, hindi sa mga rito o mga ritwal at
nagpapakita na ang dating ay nangangahulugang ang huli, na ang kawalan
ng kakayahan ay nakikita.

—— oooOooo ——

11. Ekādasaka Nipāta

30/03/2555

Mettā Sutta (AN 11.15) - ilang impormasyon · mga bula
    Eleven magandang resulta na lumalabas sa pagsasagawa ng mettā.

—— oooOooo ——
https://www.tes.com/news/school-news/breaking-news/analysis-should-pupils-be-able-use-their-own-computers-exam-hall

Analysis: Should pupils be able use their own computers in the exam hall?

Will Hazell

2nd February 2018 at 16:10

Should students be allowed to do exams on their own laptops and tablets? Or would it distort results and cause unfairness?

When asked to picture public examinations, most people will
imagine a cavernous hall, with students sat at rows and rows of
desks beavering away at questions using pen and paper.

But has pen and paper had its day – and should we be letting pupils do their exams on their own laptops and tablet?

One teacher thinks so. Caron Downes, a classics teacher at St Peter’s
School in York, is an evangelist for integrating technology into
assessment. She set out her pitch for students to take their own devices
into exams at a Westminster Education Forum event in London today.

Downes – who has also worked as a marker – can’t understand why pen
and paper still holds sway in exams at a time when every other area has
been opened up to technology.

“To prepare for an exam, a pupil can sit down and type their notes,
carry out their research online, collaborate on an essay plan with other
pupils or with their teacher, they can complete online tests, they can
write and edit their essays,” she says. “All of that is typed.”

Changing the exam room

Written exam papers fail to prepare students for a future in which
they will overwhelmingly work on and with computers and other devices,
she believes.

“Everything now is building up to this changing world. And yet [the
exam room] hasn’t changed…we will tell them to leave their tech at the
door.”

Under current regulations, pupils are allowed to type their answers
out in exams. But they have to prove this is their ”normal way of
working” and do it on a pre-prepared, secure school laptop.

However, Downes says that pupils who would prefer to type their
answers often baulk at this option. For example, they might not be
comfortable with the school’s antiquated exam laptop because they do
most of their work on a tablet.

“You get out one of the exam laptops, which has been living in the
cupboard for 10 years, you cannot imagine the look of horror on that
poor child’s face,” she says. “[The pupil says] ‘Actually, I’ll just
find a pen – it’s OK’, because they’re so horrified by the idea of
something they’ve not used.”

“The regulations say their ‘normal way of working’ – their normal way
of working is the tech that they have at home or that they carry around
with them.”

While some teachers might worry about greater potential for cheating
if pupils are allowed to bring in their own devices, Downes points out
that programmes already exist that allow devices to be locked down so
all the pupil can do is type.

‘An absolute nightmare’

However, other people are wary about more technology penetrating the exam hall.

Nicole Hodge, an exam officer at Wellington College, says: “Every
year I have an absolute nightmare with a flurry of people wanting to use
computers in their exams because they say it’s the normal way of
working.

“We cannot physically have 200 pupils doing their GCSE English on a computer, printing it off, etc.”

And those tasked with delivering and overseeing exams are worried
about the implications for fairness if there’s a big increase in the use
of technology.

Research by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), which runs the Programme for International Student Assessment (Pisa), has found that paper and computer-based testing can lead to different student outcomes.

Dale Bassett, head of curriculum strategy at the AQA exam board,
says: “In high stakes qualifications like GCSEs…we would not move to a
system where we allowed students to use technology on an opt-in basis
until we could be confident that level of fairness is enshrined.”

“If that is having a material impact on how students actually perform
in the exam, it’s really hard for us to compensate for that after the
event.”

Giving greater choice

Richard Garrett, Ofqual’s director of strategic relationships, says
he can see some benefits from a greater take-up of
technology, particularly in the logistics of delivering and collecting
scripts. But he too sounds a note of caution.

“There are at least two issues around fairness. There’s the fairness
about making sure [technology] doesn’t differentially impact or
advantage students – particularly those who might have had less exposure
to [IT] systems.”

The second issue relates to “system-level capacity” – access to technology, network speed and so on will vary between schools.

“It’s very difficult to move faster than the speed of the slowest,” he says.

But Downes still believes that by not giving pupils greater choice
about whether they want to use technology rather than pen and paper, the
exam system is stuck in the past.

“When else in our lives will you ever be told that you have to go and
sit in a room and write, as quickly as you possibly can, in two hours,
and make sure it’s coherent, make sure your handwriting is really neat –
and make sure that you get everything you know – everything that you’ve
learned over the past two years onto that piece of paper…? There’s no
other time.”

Want to keep up with the latest education news and opinion? Follow Tes on Twitter and Instagram, and like Tes on Facebook

Steffen Skovfoged ·

Direktør at UNIwise ApS

Students and pupils should be allowed to use their own devices. It’s been done in Scandinavia for years.
http://uniwise.dk/…/wiseflow-developed-bring-device-byod/

http://articles.dailyamerican.com/2011-01-12/entertainment/29153826_1_cell-phones-personal-technology-study-halls

Navaneetham Chandrasekharan

Just now
·

http://articles.dailyamerican.com/…/29153826_1_cell-phones-…

Should students be permitted to use personal technology at school?
January 12, 2011|By JESSICA GARLESKY

Conemaugh Township

I think students should be allowed to use their cellphone/iPods in
class as long as there is not an exam taking place. It should be their
choice whether they want to listen or not. I think that before the exam
is given out the students should put their technological devices in a
basket before the exam and then get them returned to them afterwards.

By BREA NERI

Windber

I believe that, with certain restrictions, students should be permitted
to use personal technology in school. I believe this because although
some insist that students would only use this technology negatively, to
either cheat on tests or share answers with other students, this is in
my opinion, rarely the case.

In any instance I have ever been
aware of, students that text in school are typically texting either
students from other schools, people that aren’t in school, or their
parents. I rarely hear of students texting people within the school
because they very obviously could just find the person and speak to
them. I think that if teachers could find a way to positively embrace
cell phones for their technological worth that they could be
instrumental in the classroom. At my school we are not permitted to use
cell phones or iPods in classrooms, hallways, study halls, or the
cafeteria. I think this rule could be touched up and that perhaps
allowing students to use their cell phones, with certain restrictions,
in study halls and the cafeteria would discourage them from doing it in
other classes that demand attentiveness.

For some students, being
able to listen to their iPod in a study hall would be a break from the
monotony of the day and could be relaxing. As long as a student using
his or her personal technology doesn’t interfere with any other student
going about their normal business then I think that students should be
permitted to use personal technology in school.

By DANIELLE DIEHL

Salisbury-Elk Lick

Students should be able to have personal technology in schools. I
understand teachers’ concerns about cheating; however, I do believe the
use of the personal technology be limited and monitored. Many school
districts act like iPods and cell phones are evil, but they’re really
not. As society is becoming more mobile, so is education. Many schools
are adapting with the integration of iPads and laptops, and just like
any other school computer, they are monitored.

While I understand
that a school can’t monitor a students use of the Internet on phones or
other devices in class, they could monitor when they use them. During
tests, a teacher could ask that all cell phones be place on their desk
and each student could pick up their cell phone after they finish doing
exams. Students also could only use these devices during free time,
lunch, or any break. Also, I know many students who prefer to do work
with music in the background, but also some that need quietness. An MP3
player or iPod would make a compromise for these students.

By JULIE DAY

Berlin

Students should be allowed to use personal technology during
appropriate times throughout the school day when given permission by a
teacher. The restriction of personal technology is important to be
enforced while classes are in session because it can be a distraction to
other students, but when students have free time, like during study
halls, lunch period, or after assigned work has been completed, there is
no reason students should not be able to quietly use personal
technology.

If the technology becomes a distraction to others, or
if the student is not able to use the technology appropriately,
teachers have the right to restrict use of the technology. There is a
fine line between using and abusing the right to personal technology
during school hours, but if students are willing to cooperate with
teachers and use personal technology appropriately, students should be
able to access their technologies in school.

By MARIO CATANESE

Shade

I am under the impression that at school a student’s responsibility is
to learn. The use of personal technology, namely cell phones, in any
educational environment will only hamper a student’s learning ability.
Of course, there are actually applications for smart phones that could
help the student. Since there isn’t a viable way to ensure that a
student is using the technology for educational purposes (e.g. e-books,
calculator apps, etc.), the safest and most effective way to handle this
situation would be to ban all personal technology from the educational
system.

By TAYLOR CLARK

Johnstown Christian

The
question should be, what electronics should we be allowed to use in the
classroom? We should be allowed to use all electronics in school;
however, only certain ones should be in the classroom itself. We should
be allowed to use laptops in the classroom for note taking, looking up
different information on-line and other class related tasks. However,
there should be a zero-tolerance policy of using your laptop for other
purposes while in the classroom. If you are caught using it for other
purposes once, your privileges should be revoked, never to be given
back.

All other electronics including iPads, cell phones,
electronic reading devices, and any other electronic device (of course
the non-controversial ones) should be allowed to be used between
classes, at lunch and at free periods. There is no reason why any of
those electronics should not be allowed outside the classroom.

By SHELBIE SLADE

Shanksville

School policy at the Shanksville-Stonycreek School District
specifically states that personal technology (cell phones, iPods, etc.)
is prohibited. I neither support nor oppose this rule. I believe that
there are specific times when personal electronic devices are useful.

For instance, at home while doing my homework, background noise is a
must for me, whether it is music or the television. So given the
assignment to write a paper or even take a test in the silence of a
classroom, is difficult for me to complete my tasks without ambient
noise. I do not understand what disturbance it would create if I
listened to my iPod during an assignment or during a study hall. Cell
phones can also have educational purposes. These hand held devices are
easier to handle then a laptop or desktop computer and are considerably
much more accessible. Think of the money school districts could save on
technology if they just allowed students to use their cell phones.
However I do realize that allowing cell phone use in school could become
a mounting problem. If a phone rang in school and a student was allowed
to answer it, what would they say to the teacher, “Oh, I’m sorry I’ve
got to take this. Would you please put today’s lesson on hold?”

Actually I would like to see that happen in one of my own classes. Cell
phones could have a detrimental effect on the test taking process as
well. Students could use their cell phones to take pictures of the test
and/or text the answers to their classmates that have the class later on
in the day. Personal electronic devices can have both positive and
negative effects in the classroom. I believe that with the proper rules
and regulations personal technology should not only be allowed in
schools, but may also improve a student’s ability to perform.

By JOE ABRAMOWICH

North Star

I believe that students should be allowed to use certain types of
technology such as cell phones and iPods in school, but they should be
limited in their usage to a certain point. Obviously cell phones should
not be permitted to be used during class, however students should be
allowed to text their friends and or family members between classes and
during lunch.

Kids hate being in school to begin with, so why
make it even more unbearable by not letting them text friends who they
may not see during the day, between classes or during lunch when they
have some time to kill. iPods should also be allowed to be used in the
same fashion. If the student has a study hall and has nothing to do or
just doesn’t want to do anything, then he or she should be allowed to
listen to music. Most likely the student already does nothing to begin
with and there is probably no way anyone will be able to get him to do
work. There are some flaws that would need to be worked out in this plan
but for the most part I think it’s pretty sound.

By LIZ HELMICK

Somerset

Due to security purposes, students should not be able to use their own technological devices in school.

A great chance exists that students able to use cell phones may text
outsiders and invite them to come into the school. This poses a threat
to not only students within the school, but any individual in the
building.

By allowing students to use computers, cell phones, or
any other device, cheating may become an issue. Answers could be passed
via text messages from pupil to pupil.

School should be an
environment where students are learning. Personal technology would only
provide distractions; therefore, a school is not a place for these
items.

By BRITTANY HOOVER

Meyersdale

Texting –
Everybody does it. Some students fall asleep with their phones next to
their ears at night, some even seem to treat their cell phones like a
siblings. So what is more important to this type of person, education or
texting? I think most know what the answer is. It has become quite an
emerging issue over the past few years; it seems that more and more kids
get caught with their cell phones or iPods in the hallway, leading to
some type of punishment. If everybody, including the teachers, uses
these devices, why is it such a big deal?

In my opinion, the use
of cellular devices and or iPods should be allowed during lunch hours
only. It’s not fair at all when a teacher is allowed to text during the
day, but the students get punished for it. And the worst thing about it
is when the teacher uses the excuse “I have a degree,” and texts away.
How is that fair? It’s bad enough that students have to sit in a dull
building all day; why not let them have a sliver of what’s going on
outside of those walls? Considering most of the websites at schools are
blocked, due to the annoying firewalls, texting or escaping to the world
of music should at least be allowed at some point in the school day.

By TAYLOR BASINGER

Turkeyfoot

It is becoming very evident that this day in age technology is a big
part of everyone’s daily life. Teenagers and school aged kids are no
exception to this. The majority of students have at least one piece of
technology that they carry with them everywhere. I know personally that
it is almost torture to have to come to school because you know that you
are required to give up all your privileges to stay connected to the
outside world. I feel that students should be permitted to use personal
technology in school. With this being said, there are times when
personal technology should not be used. There is the obvious chance of
cheating through texting and other means of communication so in the
classroom and during class hours are not appropriate times for
technology use.

During lunch or even study halls would be a
perfect opportunity to allow students to use their technology. Teachers
get a break during the day and have the chance to use any personal cell
phones or anything of that nature, students should be allowed to have
the same privileges. I see no harm in being allowed to use cell phones
during lunch hours. Also, when I am at home, I find it calming to listen
to music while studying and working on homework. Music seems to help a
teenager to focus and concentrate on their assignments rather than be
distracted by the outside world.

iPods would be a resource to be
permitted to use during study halls. If students enjoy their time in
study hall they may be more prone to actually make some progress and get
something accomplished. I see no harm in being allowed to use IPods
during study times or any free time a student might have during the day
that is normally used to study or get work done. In most classrooms
today, there is some form of technology present; I don’t see why
students are still not allowed to have their own technology at
appropriate times.

By SAMANTHA NEIMILLER

SCTC

I believe that students should be permitted to use technological
devices at school. Cell phones are essential in a teenager’s life. The
way I see it, if they pay for their phones, why shouldn’t they be
permitted to use them? As long as the students aren’t disrupting the
class or causing others not to learn, then they should be allowed to use
their phones.

IPods and mp3 players should be permitted on a
situational basis. I don’t believe that musical devices should be
permitted during a class but if a student has a study hall they should
be permitted. Students should also have the option to use their musical
devices during their lunch period. If a student elects to listen to
music during their lunch time, then they should be permitted to do so.
That’s their time and how they spend it should be up to them.

Should students be permitted to use personal technology at school?

Conemaugh
TownshipI think students should be allowed to use their cellphone/iPods
in class as long as there is not an exam taking place. It should be
their choice whether they want to listen or not….

articles.dailyamerican.com

https://mail.yahoo.com/d/folders/1/messages/48784

“We alone can challenge and defeat the casteist, communal and pro-capitalist BJP! Get ready!”
said Behanji Ms Mayawati to the BSP workers to liberate the country from the clutches of fascist rule.

Tampering
of EVMs by BJP : Our failure to form our own government in other
states has helped the BJP to defeat us in Uttar Pradesh. They found that
BSP is strong only in UP and not in other states and hence they thought
that if they could finish us in UP, BSP will die a natural death in all
other states. That is how they focused their entire strength to defeat
us in UP. However, they could not win through fair means. They had to
resort to fraudulent way of tampering the electronic voting machines
(EVMs) to defeat us.

BJP
and company had used the EVMs in 2014 itself to win the General
Election. We thought that it was the mandate against the scams-ridden
and scandals-tainted rule of Congress. But the election results of the
five states held in March 2017 have exposed the EVM scandal of BJP. They
could not win in Punjab, Uttarkhand, Goa and Manipur. In Goa and
Manipur, Congress party got lead over the BJP. But BJP leaders have
managed the other MLAs form their governments. In Uttarkhand, it was the
internal quarrel of the Congress that gave a lead to the BJP. In
Punjab, the anti-incumbency factor of Akali Dal gave the victory to
Congress. BJP, being the partner of Akali Dal, lost the election. In all
the above four states, they did not tamper with the EVMs and the
results were on the expected lines. But in Uttar Pradesh, nobody
expected that BJP would get such a huge margin of victory. The senior
bureaucrats of UP, who are usually the first to know the results in
advance, were making preparations to welcome the BSP Government. They
were utterly surprised when the results were announced. I, seeing the
trend of results late in the morning, went to the press and exposed the
EVM fraud. Later on, we also launched nation-wide struggle against the
fraud of EVMs and legal battle to get the VVPAT incorporated with EVMs.
Thus, we are confronting the BJP at every step.

BJP
Mischief in Saharanpur: It is to be understood that we are the only one
who are challenging the RSS agenda of BJP rulers during the past three
years. Be it the death of Rohit Vemula in Hyderabad University, attack
against Dalits in Una of Gujarat, Vyapam scandal of Madya Pradesh or
lynching of Muslims in Dadri, I vehemently opposed and exposed them in
the Rajya Sabha. Hence, the BJP leaders had been hatching plans to
choke our voice. They are planning to isolate BSP from other communities
and limit us only to SC/STs. That is why they managed to create clashes
between SC/STs and the Jat community in Saharanpur. They are also able
to use a SC/ST organization in their conspiracy. I have clearly
understood the game-plan of BJP behind the Saharanpur clashes. I decided
to expose them in the Parliament. When I gave the notice to speak on
the Saharanpur issue in the Rajya Sabha on July 18, 2017, they were
afraid that their mischief would get exposed and hence they did not
allow me to speak. Even the ministers also joined the chorus to prevent
my speech. I went to the Parliament to give voice to the aspirations of
people and find redresses to their woes. The issue of Sabbirpur in
Saharanpur is a very serious one in which a Sechuled Caste was killed,
several others were injured and their houses were burnt. If I am not
allowed to do justice to my aggrieved people and not able to protect
them, why should I remain in the Parliament? BJP people may try to
silence me. But I, being Babasaheb’s daughter and Kanshi Ram Saheb’s
disciple, cannot be silenced by anyone. I decided to resign my Rajya
Sabha membership as Babasaheb Ambedkar did in 1951. I, after quitting
the Rajya Sabha seat, have also decided to tour the whole country to
prepare our people and strengthen our movement in every state. We must
put an end to all kinds of exploitations by forming our government said Ms Mayawati.

99.9% Sarvajan samaj is aware of all these natak Baaz.

Yet they are happy, well and secure!

They are calm, quiet, alert,attentive and have equanimity mind with a clear understanding that everything is changing!

Yahoo - login

https://mail.yahoo.com/d/folders/1/messages/48740

There cannot be any design to trigger riots by stealth,shadowy,
discriminatory hindutva cult agenda by just 0.1% intolerant, cunning,
number one terrorists of the world, violent, militant, ever shooting,
lynching, lunatic, mentally retarded Bene Israeli chitpavan brahmin RSS
(Rowdy Rakshasa Swayam Sevaks) and all its avathars the BJP
(Brashtachar, Jiyadha Psychopaths( Visha Hindutva Psychopaths (VHP)
etc., as 99.9% Sarvajan Samaj is awakened with Awareness.

The worst governance of the Murderers of democratic institutions (Modi)
is forcing the chitpavan brahmins to do all sorys of natak bazz
plotting designs to trigger hindutva-versus-99.9% Sarvajan Samaj riots
in the name of the Ram the epic hero created by Valmiki a Scheduled
Caste to consolidate political one-upmanship by RSSising the Epic hero.

Entire Sarvajan samaj have united for ‘Modi the stooge of chitpavan brahmin Mukt Prabuddha Bharat’.

http://www.act.org/content/act/en/products-and-services/the-act.html
http://www.myacthub.org/#/marketplace/home

http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Coimbatore/reforming-evaluation-method-to-test-their-intellect/article3669361.ece

http://www.thehindu.com/…/reforming-eval…/article3669361.ece
Reforming evaluation method to test their intellect
‘Opinions of all stakeholders should be considered before implementing new system’

Debates on the pattern of evaluation system followed in schools have
gained momentum again with the proposal of open-book examination system
in Standards X and XII in Central Board of Secondary Examination Schools
by the Ministry of Human Resource Development recently.

Though
the committee to reform school examination headed by CBSE Chairman
Vineet Joshi is yet to finalise the proposal being planned to be
implemented in 2013, many aspects of it had met with mixed response from
educationists. Though termed as open-book examination, according to the
committee, the students would not be allowed to carry books to the exam
hall instead would be informed of the portions based on which
analytical and application-oriented questions would be asked.

While the students appeared thrilled about the idea, experts say that it
would take time to prepare the teachers and students to follow the new
pattern and it should be implemented in stages. Purni Krishnakumar,
Consultant Special Educationist and psychologist, said that the new
evaluation pattern will improve the cognitive and analytical skills of
the students if implemented properly. “Though it is too early to comment
on the new examination method, boiling it down by not allowing students
to carry their books might fail the purpose behind the reform,” she
said.

While many teachers said that the merits of the new system
could be analysed only after the proposal is finalised, others said that
opinions of all stakeholders should be considered before implementing
it.

Harini Ananth, a Standard IX student of National Model
Matriculation School, after attending an open-book exam as part of
formative assessment of Comprehensive Evaluation Method, said that she
liked the new method, but it was tougher than she had imagined. “We do
not have to memorise things but we cannot copy the text as such. We
should be familiar with the textbook and should have an understanding of
the topic to answer the questions, “she said. The introduction of
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) had brought in a positive
shift in pedagogical methods with focus on analytical and
application-oriented evaluation system. Brining in open-book system
would strengthen these reforms already initiated by the CBSE, said
Vijayalakshmi Menon, principal, the Western Ghats International School.

According to Geetha Laxman, principal, National Model CBSE School, the
school had been following the open-book examination for formative
assessment as per the CCE method for two years. But, unlike the new
proposal, the students were allowed to carry their textbooks and
notebooks to the examination hall and were provided reference books. Now
the proposal is to change the way summative evaluation is conducted.

“Earlier, only those who could memorise and reproduce answers scored
good marks but when experimented with open-book examination around 80
per cent of the students performed well,” said K. Saraswathi, a science
teacher.

The CBSE has also recently decided to stop providing
blue prints, sample question papers and marking schemes in classes IX
and X for summative assessment.

Reforming evaluation method to test their intellect

‘Opinions of all stakeholders should be considered before implementing new system’

thehindu.com

http://forums.welltrainedmind.com/topic/57866-students-not-allowed-to-bring-their-books-home/

http://forums.welltrainedmind.com/…/57866-students-not-all…/

students not allowed to bring their books home

9th grade school allows him to take books home. he writes in his math
texts as they are consumable. (actually, the math books should be burned
the program is so bad but that’s for another thread!) he was actually
told to take his science textbook home and leave it there for the year.

students not allowed to bring their books home - Parents’ Forum Afterschooling Board

students not allowed to bring their books home - posted in Parents Forum Afterschooling Board: when I went to…

forums.welltrainedmind.com

http://www.nairaland.com/…/examination-really-true-test-kno…
Is Examination Really The True Test Of Knowledge?
Culled from http://ourstoryandover.blogspot.com/
Personally i don’t think examination is the true test of knowledge.
Why? I’m gonna give my personal experience. I hope it helps though.
WELL THESE ARE MY REASONS.
I was young then, a Junior Secondary School student, It was time for
our exam, Maths exam to be precise, and this kid who sat next to me (He
was a friend of mine) Didn’t prepare for the exam, He told me he didn’t
even open his books, so time for the exam came, I told this Kid
everything, I basically wrote the exam for him.

He asked me questions during the exam, I answered him, I didn’t give
Him any wrong answer, after the exam, our result was given to us, and i
realized this Kid scored 88/100, while I scored 76/100. That score, made
him the highest in class.
Now, what would a normal Human being
think after seeing our scores? He would simply think that kid is smarter
than me, not knowing that i thought him everything in the examination
Hall.
Secondly, there is the case of examination malpractice. We’ve
had cases where students see question papers before exam (E.X.P.O), and
most of those students come out with excellent grades and at the end of
the day, some of these students can’t even spell their names correctly.
Even in cases where expo aren’t used, some teachers fail students
deliberately simply because they’ve got a beef with the student e.t.c.

We also have cases of students having intimate relationships with
teachers, which we all know, is not allowed, Now take for example, Lets
say a student has sexual intercourse with a teacher, Biology Teacher,
now tell me Is a student like that expected to fail the exam? That
student is assured of an A+ or Minimum B.
We also have students who
cram, these students cram for their exams and come out with A’s and B’s,
but at the end of the day, they can’t even answer straight forward
questions. We also have cases of students who carry text books into the
Examination Hall, some even copy it, on pieces of paper.

Due to these acts, I personally don’t believe examination is the true test of knowledge.
OR WHAT DO YOU THINK? grin

Re: Is Examination Really The True Test Of Knowledge?
No it’s not… wink
Re: Is Examination Really The True Test Of Knowledge? by sadiik45(m): 1:50pm On May 20, 2013
During my collage time i was a member of Debate-club. We treated the
same motion like dis that “Examination is not a true test of one’s
ability” we support and we won.

Is Examination Really The True Test Of Knowledge? - Education - Nigeria

Culled from http://ourstoryandover.blogspot.com/
Personally i don’t think examination is the true test of knowledge.
Why? I’m gonna give my personal experience. I hope it helps though. WELL
THESE ARE…

nairaland.com

2565 Mon 19 Mar 2018 LESSON Buddha Vacana — The words of the Buddha — in 22 Classical Estonian- klassikaline eesti keel, SC ‘Defamation Bench’ I. The claim that the Aadhaar database, as maintained by the UIDAI has a “robust” security system is just a big fat lie. Nothing more and nothing less http://mikeghouseforindia.blogspot.com/2018/03/india-bulletin-march-18-2018.htm What can we do for Prabuddha Bharath? A Murder Accused Is the BJP (Brashtachar Jiyadha Psychopaths) President:

03/18/18

Filed under: General
Posted by: site admin @ 8:03 pm

2565 Mon 19 Mar 2018 LESSON

Buddha Vacana
— The words of the Buddha —

in 22 Classical Estonian- klassikaline eesti keel,

SC ‘Defamation Bench’

I. The claim that the Aadhaar database, as maintained by the UIDAI has a “robust” security system is just a big fat lie.
Nothing more and nothing less

http://mikeghouseforindia.blogspot.com/2018/03/india-bulletin-march-18-2018.htm

What can we do for Prabuddha Bharath?
A Murder Accused Is the BJP (Brashtachar Jiyadha Psychopaths) President:

http://mikeghouseforindia.blogspot.com/…/india-bulletin-mar…
What can we do for Prabuddha Bharath?

Jump the ship she is sinking?

recognize Prabuddha Bharath Unity ,amend those legislations which
denies fundamental rights to Buddhist, jainas and sikhs.freedom to
religion,freedom to choose and choice under Article 25 and Article 341
cast tag on Prabuddha Bharathians.free them from hindu code.Prabuddha
Bharath for Bharathians is the answer with uniform Laws charter of
rights respect for everybody.not the stealth, shadowy,discriminatory
hindutava cult agenda or face the music of western power disintegration
of your so called unilingual hindutva cult. knows how to shit what they
dont want to clean it up.civilized free world is watching.

India Bulletin, March 18, 2018

What
can we do for India? India is at a dangerous curve now – you can laugh
all you want to laugh. But if we don’t wake up and restore…

mikeghouseforindia.blogspot.com

https://www.youtube.com/watch…
nepali dhamma songs
Matt Winfield
Published on Dec 1, 2012
for all nepali
Category
People & Blogs

nepali dhamma songs

for all nepali

youtube.com

22 Classical Estonian
25 klassikaline eesti keel
2564 P 18.03.2018 PÕHJUS

Buddha Vacana
- Buddha sõnad -
Õpi Pali võrgus tasuta ja hõlpsalt.

See
veebisait on pühendatud neile, kes soovivad paremini mõista Buddhi
sõnu, õppides pali keele põhitõdesid, kuid kellel pole selleks palju
aega. Idee
on selles, et kui nende eesmärk on lihtsalt lugeda Pali tekste ja neil
on õiglane tunne neid mõista, isegi kui see arusaam ei hõlma kõiki
grammatikareeglite üksikasju, ei pea nad tegelikult palju kulutama mis häirib õppimist keerulises gramaatilises teoorias, mis hõlmab
selliseid asju nagu arvukad tagasilükkamised ja konjugatsioonid.

Sel
juhul piisab, kui piirduda ainult kõige olulisemate pali sõnade
tähenduse õppimisega, sest korduv lugemisoskus annab empiirilise ja
intuitiivse arusaamise kõige sagedasematest lauseartiklitest. Seega on neil võimalus saada autodidektid, valides oma uuringu aja, kestuse, sageduse, sisu ja sügavuse.

Nende
arusaam Buddha Vacanast muutub palju täpsemaks, kui nad pingutama
õppida ja meelde jätta Buddha õpetuses oluliste sõnade ja oluliste
vormide korrapärase lugemise viiside kaudu. Nende õpe ja sellest saadav inspiratsioon süveneb sügavamalt, kui õpetaja sõnumite vastuvõtlikkus paraneb.

Vastutusest loobumine: sellel veebisaidil on autodidact ja see on mõeldud autodidektide jaoks. Veebihaldur ei ole järginud ühtegi ametlikku Pali kursust ega ole väidet, et kogu siin esitatud teave on täiesti tasuta. Need, kes soovivad akadeemilist täpsust, võivad kaaluda ametliku Pali kursuse liitumist. Juhul, kui lugejad märgivad viga, on veebimeister tänulik, kui nad teatavad sellest “Kontakt” kaudu mainitud postkasti kaudu.

En Français:

Otsige seda veebisaiti

Sutta Piťaka-Digha Nikkā

DN 9 -
Poṭṭhapāda Sutta
{excerpt}
- Poṭṭhapada küsimused -

Poṭṭhapāda küsib Sañña olemust reageerivaid küsimusi.
Märkus: lihtsad tekstid

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/suttapitaka.html

Sutta Piťaka
- diskursuste korv -
[kohtumine: diskursus]

Sutta Piṭaka sisaldab Buddha õpetust Dhamma sisuliselt. See sisaldab üle kümne tuhande sutda. See on jagatud viieks koguduseks nimega Nikāyas.

Dīgha Nikāya
    [dīgha: long] Dīgha Nikāya kogub 34 kõige pikemat diskussiooni, mille annab Buddha. On mitmeid vihjeid, et paljud neist on hilinenud täiendused algupärasele ja küsitavale autentsusele.
Majjhima Nikāya
    [majjhima: medium] Majjhima Nikāya kogub 152 vahepealse pikkuse Buddust, mis käsitleb erinevaid asju.
Saṃyutta Nikāya
    [samyutta: group] Sa`yutta Nikāya kogub suttas oma subjekti järgi 56 alamrühma sa`yuttas. See sisaldab enam kui 3000 erineva pikkusega diskursusi, kuid üldiselt suhteliselt lühike.
Aṅguttara Nikāya
    [anga: tegur | | uttara:
lisalõik) Aṅguttara Nikāya jaguneb üheteistkümne alamrühmaks nipatsa,
millest igaüks kogub diskursusi, mis koosnevad ühe täiendava faktori
loenditest võrreldes pretsedendi nipata elementidega. See sisaldab tuhandeid suttasid, mis on üldjuhul lühikesed.
Khuddaka Nikāya
    [Khuddha:
lühike, väike] Khuddhaka Nikāya lühikesed tekstid ja seda peetakse kahe
strataga koosnevaks: Dhammapada, Udāna, Itivuttaka, Sutta Nipāta,
Theragāthā-Therējuta ja Jaatka moodustavad iidsed kihid, samas kui
teised raamatud on hilinenud ja autentsed on küsitavam.

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/formulae.html

Pali valemid

Vaatlus,
millele see töö põhineb, on see, et Buddha poolt kõigis neljas Nikāyas,
mida Buddha kõige sagedamini korduvalt teatab, on sagedased lõigud, mis
viitavad sellele, mida ta pidas kõige õnnestumatuks huviks ja samal ajal kui see, mis kõige täpsusega esindab tema tegelikke sõnu. Kaheksa neist on välja selgitatud Gaanaka-Moggallanas Sutta (MN 107)
ja neid kirjeldatakse Sekha Paṭipadā või Treeningu üheks alaks, mis
praktikas viib neofüüdi praktiliselt kogu neljanda jhāna juurde.

Sekha Paṭipadā - teekond ühe koolituse all

Kaheteistkümmend valemit, mis määratlevad sammhaaval Buddha poolt ette nähtud tavasid. See on ülioluline kõigile, kes soovivad edukat edu saavutada, sest see
sisaldab juhiseid, mis võimaldavad meditatsioonil luua tõhusa tegevuse
jaoks hädavajalikud tingimused.

Lihtne ligipääs:

Dīgha Nikāya

Majjhima Nikāya

Saṃyutta Nikāya

Aṅguttara Nikāya

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/digha.html
Dīgha Nikāya

- Pikad diskursused -
[dīgha: pikk]

Dīgha Nikāya kogub 34 kõige pikemat diskursust, mille väidetavalt on Buddha andnud.

Poṭṭhapāda Sutta (DN 9) (väljavõte) - tõhustatud tõlge
    Poṭṭhapāda küsib Sañña olemust reageerivaid küsimusi.
MahāpaĀnāpānassati - Hingamise teadlikkus
    Bhutan soovitab ānāpānassati tava igati tervislikel eesmärkidel väga
hästi ja siin saate täiesti täpselt mõista juhiseid, mida ta annab.
Anussati - mälestused
    Siin on Buddha (≈140-kordne), Dhamma (≈90-tunnist) ja Sanghat (≈ 45-kordne) standardne kirjeldus.
Appamaṇa Cetovimutti - mõtte piiritu vabadused
    Buddha sageli kiidab nelja appamiṇa cetovimutti tava, mis on tuntud ohu eest kaitsmise ja Brahmaloka juhtimise viiside üle.
Arahatta - Arahantship
    See on varude valem, mille kohaselt on arahantshide saavutamist kirjeldanud “suttas”.
Ariya Sīlakkhandha - Väärtuslik üllas kogum
    Erinevad reeglid, millele peab järgnema bhikkhus.
Arūpajjhānā - vormitu Jhānas
    Siin on varude valemid, mis kirjeldavad samādhi absorbeerumist
kaugemale neljandast jhānast, mida nimetatakse arūpajjhānas hilisõhtul
Pali litteratuuril.
Āsavānaṃ Khayañāṇa - teadmised āsava hävitamise kohta
    Teadmised āsava hävitamise kohta: arahantship.
Bhojane Mattaññutā - toidu aeglustumine
    Toiduse mõõdukus: teades õiget söögiisu.
Cattàro Jhānā - Neli jhānast
    Neli jhānast: meeldiv püsimine.
Indriyesu Guttadvāratā - Mõistlike võimete sissepääsu jälgimine
    Kaitse mõistliku võimekuse sissepääsul: mõistlik piiramine.
Jagariyaṃ Anuyoga - Pühendumus ärkveloleku järele
    Pühendumus ärkamusele: päev ja öö.
Kammassakomhi - ma olen oma kamma
    See valem selgitab välja Buddha õpetuse ühe vundamendi kivi: põhjuste ja tagajärgede seaduse subjektiivne versioon.
Nīvaraṇānaṃ Pahāna - takistuste kõrvaldamine
    Takistuste eemaldamine: vaimsete seisundite takistamise ületamine.
Pabbajjā - läheb välja
    Läheb välja: kuidas üks otsustab maailmast loobuda.
Pubbenivāsānussatiñāṇa - Teadmised endiste elukohtade mäletamise kohta
    Endiste elukohtade meeldejätmise tundmine: mineviku elu meelde tuletamine.
Satipaṭṭhaṇa - Teadlikkuse olemasolu
    Need on need valemid, milles Buddha lühidalt määratleb, millised on neli satipaṭṭhāni (≈33 korda).
Satisampajañña - teadlikkus ja põhjalik mõistmine
    Mõtisklemine ja põhjalik mõistmine: katkematu tegevus.
Satta saddhammā - Seitse head omadused
    Seitse põhilist kvaliteeti, mida praktikant peab õnnestunuks õppima. Neli neist omadustest ilmnevad ka viie vaimse indriya ja viie balas seas.
Sattānaṃ Cutūpapātañāṇa - teadmised diceedi loomade taaselustamisest
    Teadmised düserdatud olendite taassündimise kohta.
Sīlasampatti - täiuslikkus
    Õppuse saavutamine: Pātimokhha reeglite hoolikas järgimine.
Vivitta Senavasanena Bhajana - eraldiseisvate eluruumide kasutamine
Õige koha valik ja nõuetekohase füüsilise ja vaimse seisundi võtmine on edukas praktika veel üheks hädavajalikuks tingimuseks.

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/patimokkha.html

Pātimokkha
- Bhikkhu suunised -

Need on 227 juhised, mida iga bhikkhu peab õpetama pali keeles, et saaks neid lugeda. Siin antakse (loodetavasti) iga suunise semantiline analüüs.

Parājika 1
Kas bhikkhu, kes osaleb bhikkhuse väljaõppes ja elatusvahendites,
ilma et ta loobus koolitusest, ilma et oleks kuulutanud oma nõrkust,
tegeleks seksuaalvahekorras isegi naisloomaga, võidab ta ja ei ole enam
seotud.
Pātimokkha

Parājika 1

yo pana bhikkhu bhikkhūnaṃ sikkhā · s · īvība · samāpanno sikkhaṃ ·
paccakkhāya du · b · balyaṃ · · āvi · kattuna methunaṃ dhammaṃ
paṭiseveyya antamaso tiracchana · gatāya · pi, paājiko hoti a · saṃvāso.

Kas bhikkhu, kes osaleb bhikkhuse väljaõppes ja elatusvahendites, ilma
et ta loobus koolitusest, ilma et oleks kuulutanud oma nõrkust,
tegeleks seksuaalvahekorras isegi naisloomaga, võidab ta ja ei ole enam
seotud.

yo pana bhikkhu Kui peaks mingi bhikkhu
bhikkhūnaṃ sikkhā · s · ājīva · samāpanne, kes osaleb bhikkhuse koolituses ja elatises
sikkhaṃ a · paccakkhāya, loobudes koolitusest,
du · b · balya · ani · āvi · katvā ilma oma nõrkuseta kuulutamata
methunaṃ dhammaṃ paṭiseveyya osalema seksuaalvahekorras,
antamaso tiracchāna · gatāya · pi, isegi naissoost loomaga
parājiko hoti a · saṃvāso. ta on võitnud ja enam ei ole liitunud.

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/download.html
Veebilehe allalaadimine

Laadige alla veebisait (versioon Januray 2013):

Kliki siia

http://www.buddha-vacana.org/contact.html
Kontakt
bvacana@gmail.com
Iga märkuse, soovituse, küsimuse puhul:
Ärge kartke rääkida mis tahes viga, lahknevusi, katki linki, tühi infot · mull jne, mis võivad teile kokku puutuda. Veebihaldur on tänulik.http://www.buddha-vacana.org/sutta/samyutta.html

Saṃyutta Ni diskursused

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N1K2GEAnG7A&list=RDN1K2GEAnG7A&t=10

https://mail.yahoo.com/d/folders/1/messages/48655
SC ‘Defamation Bench’

Supreme Court of India should take note of the FACT That our Democracy
is Under Attack when ‘Scores of Defamation Cases are LAUNCHED against
Opposition Leaders’ but ‘No Case is Registered against Ruling Party.’

Ever since the ex CJI Sathasivam committed a grave error of judgement
by ordering that the EVMs could be replaced in a phased manner as it was
proved that they could be tampered as suggested by the EX CEC Sampath
because of the cost of Rs 1600 crore at that time. The CJI never ordered
for using Ballot Papers as followed by 80 democracies of the world.
Such an order helped the Murderers of democratic institutions (Modi) to
gobble the Master Key. The Exceitive, Judiciary, Parliament and the
Media are fully under the control of the Murderers of democratic
institutions remotely controlled by the just 0.1%
intolerant,cunning,crooked, number one terrorists of the world,
violent,militant, ever shooting, lynching, lunatic , mentally retarded
chitpavan brahmins of Paradesi Bene Israeli RSS (Rowdy Rakshasa Swayam
Sewaks) for their manusmriti based stealth, shadowy, discriminatory
hindutva cult fullm of hatred, anger, jealous, delusion which are
defilement of the mind requiring mental treatment in mental asylums.

Supreme Court had earlier ‘REPEALED Section 66A MEANT TO SILENCE PUBLIC
DISSENT.’ 33 Cases actually means 33 Times SILENCE than Freedom to
Speech.

Supreme Court may also take note of the fact that ‘News
Media is Largely Controlled by Reliance’ – We may not have ENTIRE Media
under PUBLIC SECTOR, but Supreme Court can Restrict Ownership of a
Corporate to say Max 4% or Restricted to Gujarat in case of Reliance.

Reliance Owns 4% Share of the Stock Market – He May Own 4% Equity in News Media Companies.

Why Would Someone Invest say 50% in News Media Which is Largely in Loss
because no sensible public purchases news papers magazines etc., as
they are mentioned by the BJP (Bahuth Jiyadha Psychopaths) as
PRESSTITUTES.

Supreme Court may Constitute ‘Defamation Bench in
Delhi’ – Transfer All The Political Defamation Cases to Supreme Court
Bench in Delhi because all parties have Offices in Delhi within 2-5
kilometer of the Supreme Court could be present in court at all times
without wasting time in transit.

Supreme Court may ‘RESCIND ALL CASES FIRST’ allow 30 days No Action Days then ‘ENFORCE DEFAMATION LAWS STRICTLY.’

CBI & ED are Politically DRIVEN – Let there be ‘One By One
Approach’ a person may be UNDER TRIAL for ONE CASE AT A TIME than as
reported 33 Defamation Cases against Kejriwal are Fast Tracked.

It is in Public Interest that 33 Different Politicians are PUT UNDER DEFAMATION Than only Kejriwal.

CHEATING & FALSE PROMISES, FALSE DATA Should Invite ‘AUTOMATIC
REGISTRATION OF CASES AGAINST POLITICAL PARTIES’ UNDER 420 SECTION.
Parties indulging in False Promises & Cheating Should Be Barred from
Contesting Elections for 1 Year to 4 Years.

Very important thing
is that the Supreme Court must have a Colligate system consisting
judges from all the political parties as they represent religions and
castes. There must be juries from all walks of life to safe guard
Democracy, Universal Adult Franchise which has been negated by the fraud
EVMs,Equality, Fraternity and Liberty as enshrined in our Marvelous
Modern Constitution.

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https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/precautions-must-while-sharing-aadhaar-number-online-uidai/articleshow/63345346.cms?utm_source=AMPusers&utm_medium=fbshare&utm_campaign=socialsharebutton&from=mdr

https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/…/articl…/63345346.cms…

[Two points.

I. The claim that the Aadhaar database, as maintained by the UIDAI has a “robust” security system is just a big fat lie.
Nothing more and nothing less.
The ‘Tribune’ did blow a mega sized hole in that claim just two and a
half months back: ‘Rs 500, 10 minutes, and you have access to billion
Aadhaar details: Group tapping UIDAI data may have sold access to 1 lakh
service providers’ at <http://www.tribuneindia.com/…/rs-500-10-minutes…/523361.html>.

As a price, the reporter - the whistleblower, would promptly be booked on a criminal charge: <http://www.tribuneindia.com/…/aadhaar-expose-fi…/524935.html>.
Now, the Editor is reportedly quitting under pressure: ‘Tribune Editor
Harish Khare Puts in His Papers: Departure comes weeks after Aadhaar
exposé that embarrassed Modi government’ at <https://thewire.in/…/tribune-editor-harish-khare-puts-in-hi…>..

Now, there is another report (<https://www.thequint.com/…/another-aadhaar-data-leak-google…>) to which the ET report below specifically refers to.

II. The Aadhaar is an identity scheme for the Indians.
It has not fallen from the sky or a gift from God, assuming there’s any.

It’s a government scheme and the UIDAI is the nodal agency.
The government has made it virtually mandatory for a host of services (for indicative lists, pls. ref.: <https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/…/article…/62039634.cms>, <http://www.india.com/…/list-of-services-you-need-aadhaar-f…/> and <http://indianexpress.com/…/what-is-aadhaar-card-and-where-…/>) provided by public and private bodies, presumably, in order to make people “voluntarily” enrol..
The scheme must be having inbuilt security features factoring in its wide requirement.

So, for any large-scale lapse or leakage of data, just not sundry aberrations, the UIDAI has got to be be held accountable.
It can’t simply shake off its responsibity with disdain.
That’ll just not wash.]

https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/…/articl…/63345346.cms…

Precautions must while sharing Aadhaar number online: UIDAI

PTI|Mar 17, 2018, 08.00 PM IS

The UIDAI today asked people to take “due precautions” while sharing
their personal information such as Aadhaar on the internet for availing
any service.

Playing down reports of Aadhaar pdf being allegedly
available through Google search query of Mera Aadhaar, Meri Pehchan,
UIDAI claimed that the issue had “nothing to do with the security of
Aadhaar and its database”.

“People share their personal
information, including Aadhaar on internet, to some or other service
provider or vendor to get the services and when they put their details
on internet they should take due precautions as required in any digital
activities,” Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) said in a
statement.

Asserting the robustness of the Aadhaar identity
system, the nodal body, which issues the 12 digit biometric identifier,
said that “publication or posting of Aadhaar cards by some unscrupulous
people have absolutely no bearing on UIDAI and not the least on Aadhaar
security”.

“These (reports) are far from the reality and have
got nothing to do with the security of Aadhaar and its database. As none
of the Aadhaar cards shown are taken from UIDAI database,” the
statement said.

Snipped

—
Peace Is Doable

Precautions must while sharing Aadhaar number online: UIDAI

The
statement by UIDAI come in backdrop of reports claiming that
information about Aadhaar may be available from third party websites.

economictimes.indiatimes.com

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/rahul-gandhi-speaks-on-day-2-of-congresss-84th-plenary-session-top-quotes/articleshow/63354539.cms

A Murder Accused Is the BJP (Brashtachar Jiyadha Psychopaths) President:

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/…/articles…/63354539.cms

A Murder Accused Is the BJP (Brashtachar Jiyadha Psychopaths) President:

[In this context, the following needs be kept in mind.

I. Shah took over as the BJP National President on July 19 2014. (Ref.: <https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/…/articles…/38067254.cms>.)
II. On July 25 2010, he had been sent to jail having been “charged with
murder, extortion, kidnapping and five other sections under IPC for the
killing of Sohrabuddin and his wife Kausar Bi in 2005.” (Ref.: <https://www.indiatoday.in/…/modi-aide-amit-shah-arrested-ja…>.)
III. After spending over three months in the Sabarmati Central Jail
following his arrest in connection with the Sohrabuddin Sheikh fake
encounter case, Gujarat’s former junior home minister Amit Shah came out
on bail on Oct. 29 2010. (Ref.: <http://archive.indianexpress.com/…/after-3-months-i…/704665/>.)
IV. Immediately after, a two-judge bench of the Supreme Court passed an order barring him from entering Gujarat. (Ref.: <http://www.thehindu.com/…/Amit-Shah-mov…/article13381846.ece>.)
V. On Sept. 27 2012, almost after two years, the Supreme Court accepted
his prayer and allowed him to travel to Gujarat. (Ref.: <http://www.firstpost.com/…/amit-shah-gets-sc-nod-to-return-…>.)
VI. ***On Dec. 30 2014, nearly half a year after taking over as the BJP
President while on bail, he was “acquitted of three murder charges” by
the CBI trial court***. (Ref.: <https://in.reuters.com/…/amit-shah-acquitted-of-triple-murd…>.)
VII. The CBI decided not to appeal against the discharge of the BJP President.
The BJP had taken over power at the Centre earlier in May.
And, it was the third judge hearing the case who acquitted him, the second judge having met with controversial death.

<<The winds had changed course once the BJP led by Murderert of
democratic institutions (Modi) tgobbled the Master Key by tampering the
fraud EVMs in May 2014. The fortunes of Shah and the indicted police
officers changed dramatically. There were some initial hiccups, but
these quickly remedied. The trial judge JT Utpat pulled up Amit Shah on
June 6, 2014, for failing to appear in court in person. He ordered Shah
to present himself in court on June 26, 2014. But only a day before this
scheduled hearing, Utpat was transferred to another court, and replaced
by another judge BH Loya. Judge Loya also expressed concerns over
Shah’s failure to appear before the court. But this judge died on the
night of November 30 or in the early hours of December 1, 2014, in
circumstances that his family claims were suspicious. In an article
published this week, they detailed their misgivings to The Caravan
magazine.
Within weeks of Judge Loya’s death, on December 30, 2014,
the third judge to hear the case, MB Gosavi, discharged Amit Shah from
the Sohrabudin Sheikh fake encounter case. Gosavi said he saw no
evidence against Shah, and instead said he “found substance” in his main
defence that the CBI had framed him “for political reasons”. In so
doing, Gosavi ignored crucial pieces of evidence such as police officer
Raiger’s categorical statement that Amit Shah had instructed obstruction
of the investigation, and his phone records.>>
(Source: <https://scroll.in/…/who-killed-sohrabuddin-debate-around-ju…>.)

VIII. ***To conclude, Amit Shah had taken over as the BJP President, while on bail as a triple-murder accused.
The acquittal followed thereafter which remains engulfed in controversies.***]

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/…/articles…/63354539.cms

TIMESOFINDIA.COM | Updated: Mar 18, 2018, 19:29 IST

HIGHLIGHTS
<<The winds had changed course once the BJP led by Murderert of
democratic institutions (Modi) tgin May 2014. The fortunes of Shah and
the indicted police officers changed dramatically. There were some
initial hiccups, but these quickly remedied. The trial judge JT Utpat
pulled up Amit Shah on June 6, 2014, for failing to appear in court in
person. He ordered Shah to present himself in court on June 26, 2014.
But only a day before this scheduled hearing, Utpat was transferred to
another court, and replaced by another judge BH Loya. Judge Loya also
expressed concerns over Shah’s failure to appear before the court. But
this judge died on the night of November 30 or in the early hours of
December 1, 2014, in circumstances that his family claims were
suspicious. In an article published this week, they detailed their
misgivings to The Caravan magazine.

* The people of this country
will accept a lying BJP leadership, drunk with power, because they know
that is what the BJP is designed for.

* The people will accept a man accused of murder as the president of the BJP,

* No one can silence us from speaking the truth.

* The name ‘Modi’ symbolises the collusion between India’s biggest crony capitalists and Modi of te country.

* If you are poor, your only choice is to become a farmer, labourer,
etc. You are destined to live in ‘Modi’s maya’ - an imaginary world of
‘acche din’, Swachh Bharat, Rs 15 lakh in your bank account.

* We were the fastest growing economy in the world. But today millions of youth face unemployment.

* Modi diverts our attention and jumps from one event to another, from ‘Gabbar Singh Tax’ to yoga.

* They tell the Muslims of India, who never went to Pakistan, and
supported this great nation, you don’t belong here. They tell Tamils,
change your beautiful language, they tell people of northeast we don’t
like what you eat, they tell women to dress properly.

* Today the corrupt and powerful completely control the conversation in our country.

TOP COMMENT

* We paid Rs 570 crore per plane and Modi paid Rs 1670 crore for the
same plane. He paid Rs 1100 crore more per plane. Forget fighter planes,
you can’t trust such a man to buy vegetables.

* The Congress
will take the country forward, but we are humans, we make mistakes. PM
Modi thinks he is not human but an incarnation of God.

( With inputs from agencies)

—
Peace Is Doable

2564 Sun 18 Mar 2018 LESSON Buddha Vacana — The words of the Buddha — in 22 Classical Esperanto https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-IffbcRB1cw Buddha Songs

03/17/18

Filed under: General
Posted by: site admin @ 11:26 pm

2564 Sun 18 Mar 2018 LESSON

Buddha Vacana
— The words of the Buddha —

in 22 Classical Esperanto

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-IffbcRB1cw

Buddha Songs

By imposing the Aadhaar [scheme], the government of the day wants to
keep track of every single paise earned by citizens, and on other hand,
political parties can receive funds anonymously through electoral
bonds,” the petitioner said, comparing the Aadhaar programme to an
“undeclared emergency”.

Araria Muslims arrested for pro-Pakistan slogan, but analysis doubts veracity of video
Anti-national rants since 5/2014 clearly indicate the abundance of
scoundrels among politicians, PRESSTITUTE TV anchors and the coolies in
the media .
Gorakhpur, Phulpur, Araria: Success has only one father - Murderer of
democtatic institutions (Modi): Failure has many - Local Leaders
But when will he kick out Sonia Gandhi and Rahul Gandhi and Priyanka Vadra from the palatial bungalows they are occupying?
Narinder Modi After Election

Anban Computers

Published on Jun 10, 2014

Top 10 Reasons why Education is Extremely Important

Published on Published onApril 9, 2015

Mohamed Reda

Write an article

1. For a happy and stable life

If you want to lead a happy life and enjoy the good things the world
has to offer, you certainly need to get educated. A great job, a good
social reputation are few of the many benefits of being an educated
person. Education is a must for a promising and secure future and a
stable life.

2. Money

An educated person has more chances of landing up a good high paying
job. Everybody wants a good life but the good life!. It may be called as
the “root of all evil” but most people will agree that money is
important for survival in today’s world. The more educated you are, the
better career options you have!

3. Equality

If we want to see the world as a just and fair place where everyone
is given equal opportunities, education is what we require. Education is
a must if we want to do away with the existing differences between
different social classes and genders. It opens a whole world of
opportunities for the poor so that they may have an equal shot at well
paying jobs. Education also plays a major role in women empowerment

4. Makes you self dependent

Education is very important if you want to be a self dependent
person. It helps you become financially independent but that is not
all. Education also makes you wiser so that you can make your own
decisions

5. Turns your dreams into reality

What is your dream, your aim in life? Do you want to become rich? Do
you want to be popular? Do you want to be an extremely successful
person who is respected by people? Well, the key to all this is
education. Of course there are exceptions, like sportsmen who don’t
really owe their success to their education. However in most cases, your
degree is what helps you realize all your dreams.

6. Makes the world a safer and more peaceful place

Education majorly affects our understanding of the difference between
right and wrong. An educated person is well aware of the consequences
of wrong/illegal actions and he is less likely to get influenced and do
something which is not legally/morally right. Also, a number of
uneducated people who live a poverty stricken life owning to lack of
opportunities often turn to illegal ways such as theft and robbery to
solve their problems. If you are educated, you are well aware of your
rights, the law and your responsibilities towards the society. Hence,
education is an important factor which contributes in social harmony and
peace.

7. Makes you confident

Your educational degree is considered as a proof of your knowledge by
many. If you are educated you have more chances of being heard and
taken seriously. Generally, an uneducated man will find it harder to
express his views and opinions owning to lack of confidence. Even if he
does so, people may not take him seriously. Education gives you the
confidence to express your views and opinions.

8. Society

We all live in a society which has its own set spoken/unspoken rules
and one of them is education. The society expects you to go to school
followed by college, get a job, settle down etc. In fact education helps
you become a useful member of the society. An educated member certainly
has a greater chance to contribute to his community. Education helps
you become an active member of the society and participate in the
ongoing changes and developments.

9. For economic growth of the nation

Australia, USA and Japan are few countries with very high literacy
rates. These countries are extremely prosperous and the citizens have a
high per capita income. On the other hand, in underdeveloped and
developing nations, where literacy rate is not as high, a number of
people are still living below the poverty line. Education is vital for
the economic prosperity of a nation!

10. Saves you from being fooled/cheated

Education saves you from being exploited and fooled. We live in a
country where we enjoy a number of rights and freedom. It is easier to
take advantage of innocent and illiterate people. They may be trapped
into signing false documents or be deprived of some right which they
have because unlike an educated person they are not well aware of their
rights and freedoms.

http://cliparts.co/cliparts/kcM/nna/kcMnna5ki.gif

https://classroomclipart.com/images/gallery/Animations/Education_School/stress_study_912cc.gif

https://classroomclipart.com/images/gallery/Animations/Education_School/boy-reading-a-book-green-background-animation.gif

https://classroomclipart.com/images/gallery/Animations/Computers/girl-on-telephone-using-computer-14.gif

http://warincontext.org/2018/02/13/paleolithic-parenting-and-animated-gifs/

http://warincontext.org/…/paleolithic-parenting-and-animat…/
Paleolithic parenting and animated GIFs
By Paul Woodward, February 13, 2018

The creation of the moving image represents a technical advance in the
arts comparable with the invention of the steam engine during the
industrial revolution.

The
transition from static to moving imagery was a watershed event in human
history, through which people discovered a new way of capturing the
visible world — or so it seemed.

It turns out, however, that long
before the advent of civilization, our Paleolithic forebears figured
out that movement seen in living creatures around them could, by cunning
means, be captured in crafted illusions of movement.

Paleolithic parenting and animated GIFs

The
creation of the moving image represents a technical advance in the arts
comparable with the invention of the steam engine during the industrial
revolution.

warincontext.org