1 Pārājika Pāḷi

Pārājika Pāḷi, which is the first book of the Vinaya Piṭaka,
gives an elaborate explanation of the important rules of discipline
concerning pārājika and saṅghādisesa, as well as aniyata and nissaggiya which are minor offences.

Pārājika discipline consists of four sets of rules laid
down to prevent four grave offences. Any transgressor of these rules is
prohibited from becoming a bhikkhu. In the language of Vinaya the pārājika āpatti
falls upon him. He automatically loses the status of a bhikkhu, he is
no longer recognized as a member of the community of bhikkhus, and he is
not permitted to become a bhikkhu again. He either has to go back to
the household life as a layman or return to the status of a sāmaṇera (novice).

One who has lost the status of a bhikkhu for transgression of
any of these rules is likened to: (1) a person whose head has been cut
off from his body-he cannot become alive even if the head is fixed back
on the body; (2) leaves which have fallen off the branches of the tree
they will not become green again even if they are attached back to the
leaf-stalks; (3) a flat rock which has been split-it cannot be made
whole again; (4) a palm tree which has been cut off from its stem-it
will never grow again.

The four pārājika offences which lead to loss of status as a bhikkhu are:

The pārājika offender is guilty of a very grave transgression. He ceases to be a bhikkhu. His offence (āpatti) is irremediable.

Saṅghādisesa discipline consists of a set of thirteen
rules which require formal participation of the Sangha from beginning to
end in the process of making him free from the guilt of the offence.

Now being convinced of the purity of his conduct the Sangha lifts the āpatti at a special congregation attended by at least twenty bhikkhus, where ñatti (the motion for his reinstatement) is recited followed by three recitals of kammavācā (procedural text for formal acts of the Sangha).

Some examples of saṅghādisesa offences are:

Aniyata means indefinite, uncertain. There are two aniyata offences where it is unclear whether they are a pārājika offence, a saṅghādisesa offence or a pācittiya offence. This must be determined according to provisions in the following rules:

There are thirty rules under the nissaggiya category of
offences and penalties which are laid down to curb greed in bhikkhus for
possession of material items such as robes, bowls etc. To give an
example, an offence is committed under these rules when objects not
permitted are acquired, or when objects are acquired in more than the
permitted quantity. The penalty consists firstly of giving up the
objects in question. This is followed by confession of the breach of the
rule together with an undertaking not to repeat the same offence, to
the Sangha as a whole, or to a group of bhikkhus, or to an individual
bhikkhu to whom the wrongfully acquired objects have been surrendered.

Some examples of the nissaggiya pācittiya offences are:

Nissaggiya offences are light offences compared with the grave offences of pārājika āpatti or saṅghādisesa āpatti.

2 Pācittiya Pāḷi

The Pācittiya Pāḷi, which is the second book of the Vinaya
Piṭaka, deals with the remaining sets of rules for the bhikkhus, namely,
the pācittiya, the pāṭidesanīya, the sekhiya, the adhikaraṇasamatha and the corresponding disciplinary rules for the bhikkhunis. Although it is called in Pāḷi just pācittiya, it has the distinctive name of suddha pācittiya (ordinary pācittiya), to distinguish it from nissaggiya pācittiya, described above.

There are ninety-two rules under this class of offences
classified into nine sections. A few examples of this type of offence
are:

A pācittiya offence is remedied merely by admission of the offence to a bhikkhu.

There are four offences under this classification and they all
deal with the bhikkhu’s conduct in accepting and eating alms-food
offered to him. The bhikkhu breaking any of these rules must use a
special formula stating the nature of his fault when admitting his
offence.

The first rule of pāṭidesanīya offence reads: “Should a
bhikkhu eat hard food or soft food having accepted it with his own hand
from a bhikkhuni who is not his relation and who has gone among the
houses for alms-food this should be admitted to another bhikkhu by the
bhikkhu saying: ‘Friend, I have done a censurable thing which is
unbecoming and which should be admitted. I admit having committed a pāṭidesanīya offence.’ “

The events that led to the laying down of this rule happened in
Sāvatthi, where one morning bhikkhus and bhikkhunis were going for
alms-food. A certain bhikkhuni offered the food she had received to a
certain bhikkhu who took away all that was in her bowl. The bhikkhuni
had to go without any food for the day. Three days in succession she
offered to give her alms-food to the same bhikkhu who on all the three
days deprived her of her entire food. Consequently she became famished.
On the fourth day while going on her alms round she fainted and fell
down through weakness. When the Buddha came to hear about this he
censured the bhikkhu who was guilty of the wrong deed and laid down the
above rule.

These seventy-five rules laid down originally for the proper
behaviour of bhikkhus also apply to novices who seek admission to the
order. Most of these rules were laid down at Sāvatthi as a result of
undisciplined behaviour by a group of six bhikkhus. The rules can be
divided into four groups. The first group of twenty-six rules is
concerned with good conduct and behaviour when going into towns and
villages. The second group of thirty rules deals with polite manners
when accepting alms-food and when eating meals. The third group of
sixteen rules contains rules which prohibit teaching of the Dhamma to
disrespectful people. The fourth group of three rules relates to
unbecoming ways of answering the calls of nature and of spitting.

Pācittiya Pāḷi concludes the disciplinary rules for bhikkhus with a chapter on seven ways of settling disputes (adhikaraṇasamatha).

Four kinds of cases are listed:

For settlement of disputes that may arise from time to time
amongst the order, precise and detailed methods are prescribed under
seven headings:

The concluding chapters in the Pācittiya Pāḷi are devoted to
the rules of discipline for the bhikkhunis. The list of rules for the
bhikkhunis is longer than that for the bhikkhus. The bhikkhunis rules
were drawn up on exactly the same lines as those for the bhikkhus with
the exception of the two aniyata rules which are not laid down for the bhikkhuni order.

The eight categories of disciplinary rules for bhikkhus and
bhikkhunis of the order are treated in detail in the first two books of
the Vinaya Piṭaka. For each rule an historical account is given as to
how it came to be laid down followed by an exhortation of the Buddha
ending with “This offence does not lead to a rousing of faith in those
who are not convinced of the teaching, nor to an increase of faith in
those who are convinced.” After the exhortation comes the particular
rule laid down by the Buddha followed by word for word commentary on the
rule.

Bhikkhu Bhikkhuni

3 Mahāvagga Pāḷi

The next two books, namely, Mahāvagga Pāḷi which is the third
book and Cūḷavagga Pāḷi which is the fourth book of the Vinaya Piṭaka,
deal with all those matters relating to the Sangha which have not been
dealt with in the first two books.

Mahāvagga Pāḷi, made up of ten sections known as khandhakas,
opens with an historical account of how the Buddha attained supreme
enlightenment at the foot of the Bodhi tree, how he discovered the
famous Law of Dependent Origination and how he gave his first sermon to
the group of five bhikkhus on the discovery of the Four Noble Truths
(i.e. the great “Discourse on the Turning of the Wheel of
Dhamma”-Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta). This was followed by another great
discourse, the Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta. These two suttas can be described
as a compendium of the teaching of the Buddha.

The first section continues to describe how young men of good
families like Yasa sought refuge in him as a Buddha and embraced the
Dhamma; how the Buddha embarked upon the unique mission of spreading the
Dhamma “for the welfare and happiness of the many” when he had
collected around him sixty disciples who were well established in the
Dhamma and had become arahats; how he began to establish the
order of the Sangha to serve as a living example of the truth he
preached; and how his famous disciples like Sāriputta, Moggallāna, Mahā
Kassapa, Ānanda, Upāli, Aṅgulimāla became members of the order. The same
section then deals with the rules for formal admission to the order (upasampadā)
giving precise conditions to be fulfilled before any person can gain
admission to the order and the procedure to be followed for each
admission.

Mahāvagga further deals with procedures for an uposatha
meeting, the assembly of the Sangha on every full moon day and on the
fourteenth or fifteenth waning day of the lunar month when pāṭimokkha, a summary of the Vinaya rules, is recited. Also there are rules to be observed for rains retreat (vassa) during the rainy season as well as those for the formal ceremony of pavāraṇā
concluding the rains retreat, in which a bhikkhu invites criticism from
his brethren in respect of what has been seen, heard or suspected about
his conduct.

There are also rules concerning sick bhikkhus, the use of
leather for footwear and furniture, materials for robes, and those
concerning medicine and food. A separate section deals with the kathina ceremonies where annual making and offering of robes take place.

4 Cūḷavagga Pāḷi

Cūḷavagga Pāḷi, which is book four of the Vinaya Piṭaka, deals
with further rules and procedures for institutional acts or functions
known as saṅghakamma. The twelve sections in this book deal with rules for offences such as saṅghādisesa that come before the Sangha; rules for observance of penances such as parivāsa and mānatta
and rules for reinstatement of a bhikkhu. There are also miscellaneous
rules concerning bathing, dress, dwellings and furniture and those
dealing with treatment of visiting bhikkhus, and duties of tutors and
novices. Some of the important enactments are concerned with tajjanīya kamma,
a formal act of censure by the Sangha taken against those bhikkhus who
cause strife, quarrels and disputes, who associate familiarly with lay
people and who speak against the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha; ukkhepanīya kamma, the formal act of suspension to be taken against those who, having committed an offence, do not want to admit it; and pakāsanīya kamma,
taken against Devadatta announcing publicly that “Whatever Devadatta
does by deed or word, should be seen as Devadatta’s own and has nothing
to do with the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha.” The account of this
action is followed by the story of Devadatta’s three attempts on the
life of the Buddha and the schism caused by Devadatta among the Sangha.

In section ten there is the story of how Mahāpajāpatī, the
Buddha’s foster mother, requested admission into the order, how the
Buddha refused permission at first, and how he finally agreed to the
request because of Ānanda’s appeal on her behalf.

The last two sections describe two important events of
historical interest: the holding of the first Synod at Rājagaha and of
the second Synod at Vesāli.

5 Parivāra Pāḷi

Parivāra Pāḷi, which is the fifth and last book of the Vinaya
Piṭaka, serves as a kind of manual. It is compiled in the form of a
catechism, enabling the reader to make an analytical survey of the
Vinaya Piṭaka. All the rules, official acts, and other matters of the
Vinaya are classified under separate categories according to the
subjects dealt with.

Parivāra explains how rules of the order are drawn up to
regulate the conduct of the bhikkhus as well as the administrative
affairs of the order. Precise procedures are laid down for the settling
of disputes and the handling of matters of jurisprudence, for the
formation of Sangha courts and the appointment of well-qualified Sangha
judges. It lays down how the Sangha Vinicchaya Committee, the Sangha
court, is to be constituted with a body of learned vinayadharas (experts in Vinaya rules) to hear and decide all kinds of monastic disputes.

The Parīvara Pāḷi provides general principles and guidance in
the spirit of which all the Sangha Vinicchaya proceedings are to be
conducted for the settlement of monastic disputes.

3. WHAT IS SUTTANTA PIṬAKA?

The Suttanta Piṭaka is a collection of all the discourses
delivered by the Buddha on various occasions in their entirety. A few
discourses delivered by some of the distinguished disciples of the
Buddha, such as the Venerable Sāriputta, Mahā Moggallāna, Venerable
Ānanda etc., as well as some narratives, are also included in the books
of the Suttanta Piṭaka. The discourses of the Buddha collected together
in the Suttanta Piṭaka were delivered to suit different occasions and
different audiences with different temperaments. Although the discourses
were mostly intended for the benefit of bhikkhus and deal with the
practice of the pure life and with the explanation of the teaching,
there are also several other discourses which deal with the material and
moral progress of the lay disciple.

The Suttanta Piṭaka brings out the meaning of the Buddha’s
teachings, expresses them clearly, and protects and guards them against
distortion and misinterpretation. Just like a string which serves as a
plumb-line to guide the carpenters in their work, just like a thread
which protects flowers from being scattered or dispersed when strung
together by it, similarly by means of suttas the meaning of the Buddha’s
teachings can be brought out clearly, grasped and understood correctly,
and given perfect protection from misinterpretation.

The Suttanta Piṭaka is divided into five separate collections known as nikāyas. They are Dīgha Nikāya, Majjhima Nikāya, Saṃyutta Nikāya, Aṅguttara Nikāya, and Khuddaka Nikāya.

In the Suttanta Piṭaka are found not only the fundamentals of
the Dhamma but also practical guidelines to make the Dhamma meaningful
and applicable to daily life. All observances and practices which form
steps in the Buddha’s Noble Path of Eight Constituents lead to spiritual
purification at three levels:

To begin with one must make the right resolution to take refuge
in the Buddha, to follow the Buddha’s teaching and to be guided by the
Sangha. The first disciples who made the declaration of faith in the
Buddha and committed themselves to follow his teaching were the two
merchant brothers, Tapussa and Bhallika. They were travelling with their
followers in five hundred carts when they saw the Buddha in the
vicinity of the Bodhi tree after his enlightenment. The two merchants
offered him honey rice cakes. Accepting their offering and thus breaking
the fast he had imposed on himself for seven weeks, the Buddha made
them his disciples by letting them recite after him:

This recitation became the formula of declaration of faith in
the Buddha and his teaching. Later when the Sangha became established
the formula was extended to include the third commitment:

As a practical step capable of immediate and fruitful use by
people in all walks of life the Buddha gave discourses on charity
explaining its virtues, and on the right way and the right attitude of
mind with which an offering is to be made for spiritual benefit.

The motivating force in an act of charity is the volition, the
will to give. Charity is a meritorious action that arises only out of
volition. Without the will to give there is no act of giving. Volition
in giving alms is of three types:

Whether the offering is made in homage to the living Buddha or
to a minute particle of his relics after his passing away, it is the
volition, its strength and purity, that determines the nature of the
result thereof.

The discourses also explain the incorrect attitudes of mind with which no act of charity should be performed.

A donor should avoid looking down on others who cannot make a
similar offering nor should he celebrate his own charity. Polluted by
such unworthy thoughts his volition is only of an inferior grade.

When an act of charity is motivated by expectations of
beneficial results of immediate prosperity and happiness or rebirth in
higher existences the accompanying volition is classified as mediocre.

It is only when the good deed of alms-giving is performed out
of a spirit of renunciation motivated by thoughts of pure selflessness,
aspiring only for attainment to nibbāna where all suffering ends, that the volition underlying this act is regarded as of superior grade.

There are abundant examples in the discourses concerning charity and ways of giving alms.

Practice of sīla forms a most fundamental aspect of the
Buddha’s teaching. It consists of practice of Right Speech, Right
Action, and Right Livelihood to purge oneself of impure deeds, words and
thoughts. Together with the commitment of the Threefold Refuge (as
described above) a lay disciple observes the five precepts by making the
following formal vow:

In addition to the negative aspect of the above formula which emphasizes abstinence, there is also the positive aspect of sīla.
For instance, we find in many discourses the statement: “He refrains
from killing, puts aside the cudgel and the sword; full of kindness and
compassion he lives for the welfare and happiness of all living things.”
Every precept laid down in the formula has these two aspects.

Depending upon the individual and the stage of one’s progress,
other forms of precepts (e.g. eight precepts, ten precepts) may be
observed. For the bhikkhus of the order higher and advanced types of
practices of morality are laid down. The five precepts are to be always
observed by lay disciples, who may occasionally enhance their
self-discipline by observing eight or ten precepts. For those who have
already embarked on the path of a holy life the ten precepts are
essential preliminaries to further progress.

Sīla of perfect purity serves as a foundation for the next stage of progress, samādhi-purity of mind through concentration meditation.

Mental cultivation for spiritual uplift consists of two steps.
The first step is to purify the mind from all defilements and corruption
and to have it focused on a single point. A determined effort (Right
Effort) must be made to narrow down the range of thoughts in the
wavering, unsteady mind. Then attention (Right Mindfulness or
Attentiveness) must be fixed on a selected object of meditation until
one-pointedness of mind (Right Concentration) is achieved. In such a
state, the mind becomes freed from hindrances, pure, tranquil, powerful
and bright. It is then ready to advance to the second step by which magga insight and fruition may be attained in order to transcend the state of woe and sorrow.

The Suttanta Piṭaka records numerous methods of meditation to
bring about one-pointedness of mind. These methods of meditation are
dispersed throughout the suttas of the Piṭaka and are explained by the
Buddha sometimes singly, sometimes collectively, to suit the occasion
and the purpose for which they are recommended. The Buddha knew the
diversity of character and mental make-up of each individual and the
different temperaments and inclinations of those who approached him for
guidance. Accordingly he recommended different methods to different
persons to suit the special character and need of each individual.

The practice of mental cultivation which results ultimately in one-pointedness of mind is known as samādhi bhāvanā. Whoever wishes to develop samādhi bhāvanā
must have been established in the observance of the precepts, with the
senses controlled, calm and self-possessed, and must be contented.
Having been established in these four conditions he must select a place
suitable for meditation, a secluded spot. Then he should sit
cross-legged keeping his body erect and his mind alert; he should start
purifying his mind of the five hindrances (sensual desire; ill-will;
sloth and torpor; restlessness and worry; and doubt) by choosing a
meditation method suitable to him and practising meditation with zeal
and enthusiasm. For instance, with the Anapana method he keeps watching
the incoming and outgoing breath until he can have his mind fixed
securely on the breath at the tip of the nose.

When he realizes that the five hindrances have been removed he
becomes gladdened, delighted, calm and blissful. This is the beginning
of samādhi (concentration), which will further develop until it attains one-pointedness of mind.

Thus one-pointedness of mind is concentration of mind when it
is aware of one object, and only one of a wholesome nature. This is
attained by the practice of meditation upon one of the subjects
recommended for the purpose by the Buddha.

The subject and methods of meditation as taught in the suttas of the Piṭaka are designed both for attainment of samādhi as well as for development of insight knowledge, Vipassana ñāṇa, as a direct path to nibbāna. As a second step in the practice of meditation after achieving samādhi,
when the concentrated mind has become purified, firm and imperturbable,
the meditator directs and inclines his mind to insight knowledge (vipassanā-ñāṇa). With this insight knowledge he discerns the three characteristics of the phenomenal world: impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and non-self (anattā).

As he advances in his practice and his mind becomes more and
more purified, firm and imperturbable, he directs and inclines his mind
to the knowledge of the extinction of moral impurities (āsavakkhaya ñāṇa). He then truly understands dukkha, the cause of dukkha, the cessation of dukkha and the path leading to the cessation of dukkha. He also comes to understand fully the moral intoxicants (āsavas) as they really are, the cause of āsavas, the cessation of āsavas and the path leading to the cessation of the āsavas.

With this knowledge of extinction of āsavas he becomes
liberated. The knowledge of liberation arises in him. He knows that
rebirth is no more, that he has lived the holy life. He has done what he
has to do for the realization of magga. There is nothing more for him to do for such realization.

The Buddha taught with only one object-the extinction of
suffering and release from conditioned existence. That object can be
obtained by the practice of meditation (for calm and insight) as laid
down in numerous suttas of the Suttanta Piṭaka.

4. DĪGHA NIKĀYA

This collection in the Suttanta Piṭaka is named Dīgha Nikāya as
it is made up of thirty-four long discourses of the Buddha. It is
divided into three divisions:

1 Sīlakkhandha Vagga Pāḷi -
Division Concerning Morality

This division contains thirteen suttas which deal extensively
with various types of morality, namely, minor morality, basic morality
applicable to all; middle morality, and major morality which are mostly
practised by samaṇas and brāhmaṇas. It also discusses the
wrong views then prevalent as well as brahmin views of sacrifice and
caste, and various religious practices such as extreme
self-mortification.

An argument between Suppiya, a wandering ascetic, and his pupil
Brahmadatta, with the teacher maligning the Buddha, the Dhamma and the
Sangha and the pupil praising the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha,
gave rise to this famous discourse which is listed first in this Nikāya.

In connection with the maligning of the Buddha, the Dhamma and
the Sangha, the Buddha enjoined his disciples not to feel resentment,
displeasure or anger, because it would only be spiritually harmful to
them. As to the words of praise for the Buddha, the Dhamma and the
Sangha, the Buddha advised his disciples not to feel pleased, delighted
or elated, for it would be an obstacle to their progress in the path.

The Buddha said that whatever worldling (puthujjana) praised the Buddha he could not do full justice to the peerless virtues of the Buddha, namely, his superior concentration (samādhi) and wisdom (paññā). A
worldling could touch on only “matters of a trifling and inferior
nature, mere morality.” The Buddha explained the three grades of
morality and said that there were other dhammas profound, hard to
see, subtle and intelligible only to the wise. Anyone wishing to praise
correctly the true virtues of the Buddha should do so only in terms of
these dhammas.

The Buddha continued to expound on various wrong views. There were samaṇas and brāhmaṇas who, speculating on the past, adhered to and asserted their wrong views in eighteen different ways, namely:

There were samaṇas and brāhmaṇas, who, speculating on the future, adhered to and asserted their wrong views in forty-four ways, namely:

The Buddha said that whatever samaṇas and brāhmaṇas speculated
on the past or the future or both the past and the future, they did so
in these sixty-two ways or one of these sixty-two ways.

The Buddha announced further that he knew all these wrong views
and also what would be the destination, the next existence, in which
the one holding these views would be reborn.

The Buddha gave a detailed analysis of these wrong views
asserted in sixty-two ways and pointed out that these views had their
origin in feeling which arose as a result of repeated contact through
the six sense bases. Whatever person holds these wrong views, in him
feeling gives rise to craving; craving gives rise to clinging; clinging
gives rise to existence; the kammic causal process in existence gives
rise to rebirth; and rebirth gives rise to ageing, death, grief,
lamentation, pain, distress and despair.

But whatever person knows, as they really are, the origin of
the six sense bases of contact, their cessation, their pleasurableness,
their danger and the way of escape from them, he realizes the dhammas, not only mere morality (sīla) but also concentration (samādhi) and liberation (vimutti), wisdom (paññā), that transcend all these wrong views.

All the samaṇas and brāhmaṇas holding the
sixty-two categories of wrong views are caught in the net of this
discourse just like all the fish in a lake are contained in a finely
meshed net spread by a skilful fisherman or his apprentice.

On one full moon night while the Buddha was residing in
Rājagaha at the mango grove of Jīvaka this discourse on the fruits of
the life of a samaṇa, personally experienced in this very life,
was taught to King Ajātasattu on request by him. The Buddha explained to
him the advantage of the life of a samaṇa by giving him the examples of a servant of his household or a landholder cultivating the King’s own land becoming a samaṇa to
whom the King himself would show respect and make offerings of
requisites, providing him protection and security at the same time.

The Buddha provided further elucidation on other advantages, higher and better, of being a samaṇa by elaborating on: (i) how a householder, hearing the Dhamma taught by a Buddha, leaves the home life and becomes a samaṇa out of pure faith; (ii) how he becomes established in three categories of sīla, minor,
middle and major; (iii) how he gains control over his sense faculties
so that no depraved states of mind such as covetousness and
dissatisfaction would overpower him; (iv) how he becomes endowed with
mindfulness and clear comprehension and remains contented; (v) how, by
dissociating himself from five hindrances, he achieves the four jhānas (the
first, the second, the third and the fourth) as higher advantages than
those previously mentioned; (vi) how he becomes equipped with eight
kinds of higher knowledge, namely: insight knowledge, the power of
creation by mind, the psychic powers, the divine power of hearing,
knowledge of the minds of others, knowledge of past existences, divine
power of sight, knowledge of extinction of moral intoxicants.

Thus when the knowledge of liberation arises in him, he knows
he has lived the life of purity. There is no other advantage of being a samaṇa, personally experienced, more pleasing and higher than this.

Ambaṭṭha, a young disciple of Pokkharasāti, the learned
brahmin, was sent by his master to investigate whether Gotama was a
genuine Buddha endowed with the thirty-two personal characteristics of a
great man. His insolent behaviour, taking pride in his birth as a
brahmin, led the Buddha to subdue him by proving that khattiya is in fact superior to brāhmaṇa. The
Buddha explained further that nobleness in man stemmed not from birth
but from perfection in three categories of morality, achievements of
four jhānas, and accomplishments in eight kinds of higher knowledge.

This discourse was given to the brahmin Soṇadaṇḍa who
approached the Buddha while he was residing near Lake Gaggarā at Campā
in the country of Aṅga. He was asked by the Buddha what attributes
should one possess to be acknowledged as a brahmin. Soṇadaṇḍa enumerated
high birth, learning in the Vedas, good personality, morality and
knowledge as essential qualities to be a brahmin. When further
questioned by the Buddha, he said that the minimum qualifications were
morality and knowledge without which no one would be entitled to be
called a brahmin. On his request, the Buddha explained to him the
meaning of the terms morality and knowledge, which he confessed to be
ignorant of, namely, the three categories of morality, achievements of
four jhānas and accomplishments in eight kinds of higher knowledge.

On the eve of offering a great sacrificial feast, the brahmin
Kūṭadanta went to see the Buddha for advice on how best to conduct the
sacrifice. Giving the example of a former King Mahāvijita, who also made
a great sacrificial offering, the Buddha declared: the principle of
consent by four parties from the provinces (namely, noblemen, ministers,
rich brahmins and householders); the eight qualities to be possessed by
the king who would make the offerings; the four qualities of the
brahmin royal adviser who would conduct the ceremonies; and the three
attitudes of mind towards the sacrifices. With all these conditions
fulfilled, the feast offered by the king was a great success, with no
loss of life of sacrificial animals, no hardship on the people, no one
impressed into service, everyone co-operating in the great feast
willingly.

The brahmin Kūṭadanta then asked the Buddha if there was any
sacrifice which could be made with less trouble and exertion, yet
producing more fruitful result. The Buddha told him of the traditional
practice of offering the four requisites to bhikkhus of high morality.
Less troublesome and more profitable again was donating a monastery to
the order of bhikkhus. Better still were the following practices in
ascending order of beneficial effects: (i) going to the Buddha, the
Dhamma, and Sangha for refuge (ii) observing the five precepts (iii)
going forth from the home life and leading the holy life, becoming
established in morality, becoming accomplished in the four jhānas, and becoming equipped with eight kinds of higher knowledge resulting in the realization of the extinction of āsavas. This is the sacrifice which entails less trouble and exertion but which excels all other sacrifices.

Mahāli Oṭṭhaddha, a Licchavi ruler, once came to see the Buddha
to whom he recounted what Sunakkhatta, a Licchavi prince, had told him.
Sunakkhatta had been a disciple of the Buddha for three years after
which he left the teaching. He told Mahāli how he had acquired the
divine power of sight by which he had seen myriads of pleasant,
desirable forms belonging to the deva world but that he had not heard sounds belonging to the deva world. Mahāli wanted to know from the Buddha whether Sunakkhatta did not hear the sounds of the deva world because they were non-existent, or whether he did not hear them although they existed.

The Buddha explained that there were sounds in the deva world
but Sunakkhatta did not hear them because he had developed
concentration only for one purpose, to achieve the divine power of sight
but not the divine power of hearing.

The Buddha explained further that his disciples practised the
noble life under him not to acquire such divine powers but with a view
to the realization of dhammas which far excel and transcend these mundane kinds of concentrations. Such dhammas are
attainments of the four states of noble fruition-states of a
stream-winner, a once-returner, a non-returner, and the state of mind
and knowledge of an arahat freed of all āsavas that have been rendered extinct.

The Path by which these dhammas can be realized is the
Noble Path of Eight Constituents: Right View, Right Thought, Right
Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness,
Right Concentration.

Once when the Buddha was residing at Ghositārāma Monastery near
Kosambī, two wandering ascetics, Muṇḍiya and Jāliya, approached him and
asked whether the soul was the physical body, or the physical body the
soul, or whether the soul was one thing and the physical body another.

The Buddha explained how a person who had finally realized
liberation would not even consider whether the soul was the physical
body, or the physical body the soul, or whether the soul was one thing
and physical body another.

This discourse defines what a true samaṇa is, what a true brāhmaṇa is.
The Buddha was residing in the deer park of Kaṇṇakatthala at Ujuñña.
The naked ascetic Kassapa approached him and said that he had heard that
Samaṇa Gotama disparaged all practices of self-mortification and that
Samaṇa Gotama reviled all those who led an austere life.

The Buddha replied that they were slandering him with what was
not said, what was not true. When the Buddha could see with his
supernormal vision the bad destinies as well as the good destinies of
those who practised extreme forms of self-mortification, and of those
who practised less extreme forms of self-mortification, how could he
revile all systems of self-mortification.

Kassapa then maintained that only those recluses, who for the
whole of their life cultivated the practice of standing or sitting, or
who were abstemious in food, eating only once in two days, seven days,
fifteen days, etc., were real samaṇas and brāhmaṇas. The
Buddha explained to him the futility of extreme self-mortification and
said that only when a recluse practised to become accomplished in
morality, concentration and knowledge, cultivated loving-kindness, dwelt
in the emancipation of mind, and dwelt in the emancipation through
knowledge would he be entitled to be called a samaṇa and brāhmaṇa. Then
the Buddha gave a full exposition on morality, concentration and
knowledge, resulting in Kassapa’s decision to join the order of the
Buddha.

Once when the Buddha was staying at the Monastery of
Anāthapiṇḍika in the Jeta Grove at Sāvatthi he visited the Ekasālaka
Hall where various views were debated. At the time Poṭṭhapāda, the
wandering ascetic, asked him about the nature of the cessation of
consciousness (saññā). Poṭṭhapāda wanted to know how the
cessation of consciousness was brought about. The Buddha told him that
it was through reason and cause that forms of consciousness in a being
arose and ceased. A certain form of consciousness arose through practice
(adhicitta sikkhā) and a certain form of consciousness ceased through practice.

The Buddha then proceeded to expound on these practices consisting of observance of sīla and development of concentration which resulted in arising and ceasing of successive jhānas. The meditator progressed from one stage to the next in sequence until he achieved the cessation of all forms of consciousness (nirodha samāpatti).

This is a discourse given not by the Buddha but by his close
attendant, the Venerable Ānanda, on the request of young Subha. The
Buddha had passed away by then. And young Subha wanted to know from the
lips of the Buddha’s close attendant what dhammas were praised by the Buddha and what those dhammas were which he urged people to practise.

Ānanda told him that the Buddha had words of praise for the
three aggregates of Dhamma, namely, the aggregate of morality, the
aggregate of concentration and the aggregate of knowledge. The Buddha
urged people to practise these dhammas, dwell in them, and have
them firmly established. Ānanda explained these aggregates of Dhamma in
great detail to young Subha, in consequence of which Subha became a
devoted lay disciple.

The Buddha was residing at Nālandā in Pārāvārika’s mango grove.
A devoted lay disciple approached the Buddha and urged him to let one
of his disciples perform miracles so that the city of Nālandā would
become devoted to the Buddha.

The Buddha told him about the three kinds of miracles which he
had known and realized by himself through supernormal knowledge. The
first miracle, iddhi pāṭihāriya, was rejected by the Buddha because it could be mistaken as the black art called gandhārī magic. The Buddha also rejected the second miracle, ādesanā pāṭihāriya, which might be mistaken as practice of cintāmaṇi charm. He recommended the performance of the third miracle, the anusāsanī pāṭihāriya, the
miracle of the power of the teaching as it involved practice in
morality, concentration and knowledge leading finally to the extinction
of āsavas (āsavakkhaya ñāṇa).

The discourse lays down three types of blameworthy teachers:
(i) the teacher who is not yet accomplished in the noble practice and
teaches pupils who do not listen to him; (ii) the teacher who is not yet
accomplished in the noble practice and teaches pupils who practise as
instructed by him and attain emancipation; (iii) the teacher who is
fully accomplished in the noble practice and teaches pupils who do not
listen to him.

The praiseworthy teacher is one who has become fully
accomplished in the three practices of morality, concentration and
knowledge and teaches pupils who become fully accomplished like him.

Two brahmin youths, Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja, came to see the
Buddha while he was on a tour through the kingdom of Kosala. They wanted
the Buddha to settle their dispute as to the correct path that led
straight to companionship with Brahmā. Each one thought only the way
shown by his own master was the true end.

The Buddha told them that as none of their masters had seen
Brahmā, they were like a line of blind men each holding on to the
preceding one. Then he showed them the true path that really led to the
Brahmā realm, namely, the path of morality and concentration, and
development of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and
equanimity towards all sentient beings.

2 Mahā Vagga Pāḷi-
The Large Division

The ten suttas in this division are some of the most important
of the Tipiṭaka, dealing with historical and biographical aspects as
well as the doctrinal aspects of Buddhism. The most famous sutta is the
Mahāparinibbāna Sutta which gives an account of the last days and the
passing away of the Buddha and the distribution of his relics.
Mahāpadāna Sutta deals with brief accounts of the last seven Buddhas and
the life story of the Vipassī Buddha. Doctrinally important are the two
suttas: the Mahānidāna Sutta, which explains the Chain of Cause and
Effect, and the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta, which deals with the four
methods of steadfast mindfulness and practical aspects of Buddhist
meditation.

This discourse was given at Sāvatthi to the bhikkhus who were
one day discussing the Buddha’s knowledge of past existences. He told
them about the last seven Buddhas, with a full life story of one of
them, the Vipassī Buddha, recalling all the facts of the Buddhas, their
social rank, name, clan, life-span, the pairs of chief disciples, the
assemblies of their followers, their attainments, and emancipation from
defilements.

The Buddha explained that his ability to remember and recall
all the facts of past existences was due to his own penetrating
discernment as well as due to the devas making these matters known to him.

This discourse was given at Kammāsadhamma market town to the Venerable Ānanda to correct his wrong view that the doctrine of Paṭiccasamuppāda, although
having signs of being deep and profound, was apparent and fathomable.
The Buddha told him that this doctrine not only appeared to be deep and
profound but was actually deep and profound on four counts: it was deep
in meaning, deep as a doctrine, deep with respect to the manner in which
it was taught, and deep with regard to the facts on which it was
established.

He then gave a thorough exposition on the doctrine and said
that because of lack of proper understanding and penetrative
comprehension of this doctrine, beings were caught in and unable to
escape from the ruinous round of rebirth. He concluded that without a
clear understanding of this doctrine, even the mind of those
accomplished in the attainments of jhāna would be clouded with ideas of atta.

This sutta is an important narrative of the Buddha’s last days,
a detailed chronicle of what he did, what he said and what happened to
him during the last year of his life. Compiled in a narrative form, it
is interspersed with many discourses on some of the most fundamental and
important aspects of the Buddha’s teaching. Being the longest discourse
of the Dīgha Nikāya, it is divided into six chapters.

On the eve of the last great tour, the Buddha, while staying at
Rājagaha, gave the famous discourses on seven factors of non-decline of
kings and princes, and seven factors of non-decline of bhikkhus.

Then he set out on his last journey going first to the village
of Pāṭali where he taught on the consequences of an immoral and a moral
life. He then proceeded to the village of Koṭi where he expounded on the
Four Noble Truths. Then the Buddha took up his residence at the village
of Nātika where the famous “Discourse on the Mirror of Truth” was
given.

Next the Buddha went to Vesāli with a large company of
bhikkhus. At Vesāli he accepted the park offered by the courtesan
Ambapāḷi. From Vesāli, the Buddha travelled to a small village named
Veluva where he was overtaken by a severe illness that could have proved
fatal. But the Buddha resolved to maintain the life-process and not to
pass away without addressing his lay disciples and without taking leave
of the Sangha. When Ānanda informed the Buddha how worried he had been
because of the Buddha’s illness, the Buddha gave the famous injunction:
“Let yourselves be your own support, your own refuge. Let the Dhamma,
not anything else, be your refuge.”

It was at Vesāli that the Buddha made the decision to pass away and realize parinibbāna in
three months’ time. Upon his making this momentous decision there was a
great earthquake. Ānanda, on learning from the Buddha the reason of the
earthquake, supplicated him to change the decision, but to no avail.

The Buddha then caused the Sangha to be assembled to whom he announced his approaching parinibbāna. He
then went over all the fundamental principles of his teaching and
exhorted them to be vigilant, alert, and to watch over their own mind so
as to make an end of suffering.

The Buddha then left Vesāli and went to Bhaṇḍa village where he continued to give his discourses to the accompanying Sangha on sīla, samādhi and paññā. Proceeding further on his journey to the north, he gave the discourse on the four great authorities (mahāpadesa) at the town of Bhoga.

From there he went on to Pāvā and stayed in the Mango Grove of
Cunda, the Goldsmith’s son, who made an offering of food to the Buddha
and his community of bhikkhus. After eating the meal offered by Cunda, a
severe illness came upon the Buddha who nevertheless continued on his
journey until he reached Kusinārā where in the Sal Grove of the Malla
princes he urged Ānanda to lay out the couch for him. He lay down on the
couch with mindfulness and deliberation, awaiting the hour of his parinibbāna.

Even on his death-bed the Buddha continued to teach; he
explained that there are four places which arouse reverence and devotion
and four persons worthy of a stupa; and he answered Ānanda’s
questions on how to conduct oneself with regard to women, and on what
should be done regarding the remains of the Buddha. His last act of
selflessness was to expound the truth and show the path to Subhadda, the
wandering ascetic.

Then after ascertaining that there was not a single bhikkhu who
had perplexity or doubt about the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha,
the Buddha uttered his last words: “Inherent in all compounded things is
decay and dissolution. Strive well with full mindfulness.”

Then as the assembled bhikkhus, princes and people paid homage to him with deep reverence, the Buddha passed away, realizing parinibbāna.

This discourse was given by the Buddha while he was lying on
his death-bed in the Sal Grove of the Mallas. When Ānanda implored him
not to realize parinibbāna in an insignificant, barren, small
town, the Buddha told him that Kusinārā was not an insignificant small
place. In times long past, it was known as Kusāvatī, the capital city of
universal monarchs who ruled over the four quarters of the world.

The Buddha then described the magnificence and grandeur of
Kusāvatī when King Mahāsudassana was the ruler there. He also told how
the King ruled over his dominions righteously and how finally abandoning
all attachments and practising jhāna he passed away and reached the blissful Brahmā realm.

The Buddha revealed that he himself was King Mahāsudassana of
that time. He had cast off the body in this place (former Kusāvatī) six
times as a universal monarch. Now he was casting it off for the seventh
and last time. He ended the discourse reminding Ānanda that all
compounded things are indeed impermanent. Arising and decaying are their
inherent nature. Only their ultimate cessation is blissful nibbāna.

This discourse is an extension of another discourse delivered
by the Buddha on his last journey. Ānanda wanted to know the destinies
of lay disciples from the country of Magadha. The Buddha told him that
innumerable persons from Magadha had reached the deva world by
virtue of their faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. This
information was given him by Janavasabha Deva who was formerly King
Bimbisāra. He informed the Buddha that there were regular assemblies of devas in the deva realm on uposatha days when the king of the devas and
Sanaṅkumāra Brahmā taught the Dhamma on development of the bases of
psychic power, on the three opportunities, on the four methods of
steadfast mindfulness and the seven accessories of concentration.

In this discourse, Pañcasikha, a gandhabba deva, told the deva assembly where Sanaṅkumāra Brahmā taught the Dhamma as shown by Mahāgovinda, the bodhisatta who
had reached the Brahmā world. The Buddha said that Mahāgovinda was none
other than himself and explained that the Dhamma he taught at that time
could lead one only to the Brahmā world. With his teaching now as an
enlightened Buddha, higher attainments such as the sotāpatti, anāgāmi and the highest achievement arahatta phala were possible.

The Buddha was residing in the Mahāvana forest at Kapilavatthu with a company of arahats numbering five hundred. Then devas and Brahmās from ten thousand cakkavāḷas came to see the Buddha and the community of bhikkhus. The Buddha told his disciples the names of the devas and Brahmās as listed in this sutta.

Once when the Buddha was residing at the Indasāla Cave near Rājagaha, Sakka, the king of devas, came
to him to ask certain questions. He wanted to know why there was
hostility and violence among various beings. The Buddha told him it was
envy and selfishness that brought about hostility among beings. He
further explained that envy and selfishness were caused by likes and
dislikes, which in turn had their roots in desire. And desire grew from
mental preoccupation (vitakka) which had its origin in saṃsāra-expanding illusions (papañca-saññā-saṅkha).

The Buddha then gave an outline of practices to remove these saṃsāra-expanding illusions including two types of quests, quests that should be pursued and quests that should not be pursued.

This sutta is one of the most important doctrinal discourses of
the Buddha. It propounds the only way for the purification of beings,
for overcoming sorrow and lamentation, for the complete removal of pain
and grief, for the attainment of the right path, and for the realization
of nibbāna. This discourse, given directly to the bhikkhus at
the market town of Kammāsadhamma, defines “the only way” as the four
methods of steadfast mindfulness made up of fourteen ways of
contemplating the body, nine ways of contemplating sensation, sixteen
ways of contemplating the mind, and five ways of contemplating the
Dhamma. It ends with a definite assurance of fruitful results:
arahatship in this very existence or the state of an anāgāmi within seven years, seven months or seven days.

This discourse recounts how the Venerable Kumārakassapa showed
the right path to Governor Pāyāsi of Setabyā town in Kosala country.
Governor Pāyāsi held the wrong belief: “There is no other world; no
beings arise again after death; there are no consequences of good or bad
deeds.” The Venerable Kumārakassapa showed him the right path,
illustrating his teaching with numerous illuminating similes. Ultimately
Pāyāsi became full of faith and took refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma
and the Sangha. The Venerable Kumārakassapa taught him also the right
kind of offerings to be made and that these offerings would be made with
due respect, by one’s own hands, with due esteem and not as if
discarding them. Only under these conditions would the good deed of
offerings bear splendid fruits.

3 Pāthika Vagga Pāḷi

This division is made up of eleven shorter discourses of a
miscellaneous nature. They deal with the Buddha’s rejection of wrong and
severe asceticism practised by followers of many sects. They deal also
with the periodical evolution and dissolution of the universe, the
accounts of universal monarchs and the thirty-two physiognomic
characteristics of a great man. There is one discourse, Siṅgāla Sutta,
addressed to a young brahmin showing the duties to be performed by
members of the human society. The last two suttas, Saṅgīti and
Dasuttara, are discourses given by the Venerable Sāriputta and they
contain lists of doctrinal terms classified according to subject matter
and numerical units. The style of their composition is different from
the other nine suttas of the division.

At the time of the Buddha, there were many other teachers with
their own disciples holding different views on what constituted the holy
life, on the origin and development of the universe, and on the
performance of wonders and miracles.

Sunakkhatta, a Licchavi prince, became a disciple of the Buddha
and was admitted into the order. But he found the discipline and the
teaching to be beyond him and his comprehension. He became at the same
time attracted to the teachings and practices of other sects. He left
the order after three years. Then becoming a follower of one of the
sects he began to disparage the teachings of the Buddha, and made
slanderous attacks on the Buddha and his disciples. In Pāthika Sutta are
short discourses in which are accounts of the Buddha’s refutation and
explanation with reference to many of Sunakkhatta’s accusations.

This discourse was given to Nigrodha, the wandering ascetic,
and his followers in the park of the Queen Udumbarikā near Rājagaha in
order to destroy their wrong doctrine and establish wholesome doctrine.
So obsessed were the wandering ascetics with their own wrong beliefs
that they gave no response to the Buddha’s invitation to follow his
teaching which would assure them fruitful results within seven days.

In the town of Mātulā, in the country of Magadha, bhikkhus were
enjoined by the Buddha to be their own support, their own refuge,
relying only on the Dhamma and not on any other refuge. Then the Buddha
told them the story of Daḷhanemi, the universal monarch who possessed
the Celestial Wheel as one of his seven treasures. He and his successor
ruled over the four continents, wielding the power and authority of the
universal monarch. Their life-span was long, and as long as they
remained righteous and fulfilled the noble duties of universal monarch,
making the Dhamma their only support, providing shelter and security,
offering wealth and necessities to the needy, their dominions remained
at peace, were prosperous and progressing.

But when the monarch failed to fulfil the noble duties of a
righteous king, when the Dhamma was no longer held as a refuge, the
morality of the people declined. Their life-span dwindled down to ten
years only. Then the ten meritorious deeds productive of wholesome
effects completely disappeared and the ten evil deeds giving unwholesome
results flourished exceedingly. People failed to show reverential
regard for the leaders and elders, to fulfil their duties towards
parents, samaṇas and brāhmaṇas. There also developed
intense mutual aversion, ill-will, thoughts of killing one another,
followed by fighting, devastation and carnage.

A few who survived the holocaust agreed to give up their evil
ways, to live in a spirit of harmony, doing good deeds, showing
reverential regard for the leaders and elders, fulfilling their duties
towards parents, samaṇas and brāhmaṇas. In consequence of
improved morality, their life-span expanded again until it reached
eighty thousand years when a universal monarch appeared once more to
rule righteously. Bhikkhus were thus enjoined to keep within the
confines of the Dhamma, making it their support, their refuge. The
Dhamma would show the way for their physical and mental development
until they attained arahatship.

This discourse was given as Sāvatthi to two novices under
training, Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja, pointing out the wrong beliefs of
brahmins as regards caste. The brahmins claimed that among the four
classes of people recognised at that time brahmins were the noblest;
next came the khattiya class (the nobility and royalty) followed by vessa (the trading class) and sudda (the lowest class).

The Buddha refuted these claims of the brahmins by explaining
how the world was subjected to processes of evolution and dissolution
and describing how human beings first appeared on earth and how the four
social classes emerged. He explained further that the nobility of a
person was decided not by his birth and lineage but by his morality and
knowledge of the Noble Truths.

“Whoever holds wrong views and commits misdeeds is not noble
whatever his birth. Whoever restrains himself in deed, word and thought
and develops the bodhipakkhiya dhammas until he attains complete eradication of defilements in this very life is the chief, the noblest amongst men and devas irrespective of birth.”

The Venerable Sāriputta’s deep confidence in the Buddha was
once proclaimed aloud in an eloquent eulogy of the Buddha spoken in the
Buddha’s presence. For making this bold utterance on the virtues of the
Buddha, the Buddha asked him whether he had personal knowledge of the
minds of all the Buddhas, those of the past, of the future and of the
present, their morality, their concentration, their wisdom, and the
manner of their emancipation.

The Venerable Sāriputta said he did not claim to have such
knowledge but justified himself by stating in detail the course of the
Dhamma taken by all the Buddhas, their accomplishment in sīla, abandonment
of five hindrances, establishment in the four methods of steadfast
mindfulness and cultivation of the seven factors of enlightenment-as
being the only course that could lead to unsurpassed supreme
enlightenment.

The Venerable Ānanda accompanied by Bhikkhu Cunda went to see
the Buddha to give him the news about the death of Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta,
the leader of a well-known sect, and the schism that had arisen amongst
his disciples.

The Buddha told them that it was natural and to be expected to
happen in a teaching which was not well taught, not well imparted, not
conducive to emancipation, and not taught by one who was supremely
enlightened.

In contrast, the Buddha explained that when the teaching was
well taught, well imparted by one who was supremely enlightened, there
were no wrong views, no speculations about past or future or about atta.
In the teaching of the Buddha, bhikkhus were taught the four methods of
steadfast mindfulness by which wrong views and speculations were laid
aside.

This discourse on thirty-two bodily marks of a great man was
given by the Buddha at Sāvatthi in Anāthapiṇḍika’s Monastery. For a
person endowed with the thirty-two bodily marks of a great man, only two
possible courses are open to him and no other.

“If he lives the household life, he will become a universal
monarch ruling in righteousness over the four continents. If he goes
forth from the home life into homelessness, he will become an
enlightened Buddha.”

The Buddha explained the thirty-two bodily marks in detail,
together with accounts of meritorious deeds previously performed by
virtue of which each of these thirty-two bodily marks were acquired.

This discourse was given by the Buddha at Rājagaha for the
edification of a young man named Siṅgāla. The youth Siṅgāla used to
worship the six cardinal points, namely, the east, the south, the west,
the north, the nadir and the zenith in obedience to the last advice
given by his dying father. The Buddha explained to the young man that
according to his teaching the six directions were: the east standing for
parents; the south standing for teachers; the west standing for the
wife and children; the north standing for friends and associates; the
nadir standing for servants, employees; the zenith standing for samaṇas, brāhmaṇas.

The Buddha explained further that the six social groups
mentioned in the discourse were to be regarded as sacred and worthy of
respect and worship. One worshipped them by performing one’s duties
towards them. Then these duties were explained to the youth Siṅgāla.

Four celestial kings came to see the Buddha and told him that
there were non-believers among many invisible beings who might bring
harm to the followers of the Buddha. The celestial kings therefore
wanted to teach the bhikkhus the protecting incantation known as the
Āṭānāṭiya Paritta. The Buddha gave his consent by remaining silent.

Then the four celestial kings recited the Āṭānāṭiya Paritta,
which the Buddha advised the bhikkhus, bhikkhunis and lay disciples to
learn, to memorize so that they might dwell at ease, well guarded and
protected.

The Buddha was touring through the country of the Mallas when
he came to Pāvā. The death of Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta had taken place only
recently and his followers were left in dissension and strife, wrangling
over doctrines.

The Venerable Sāriputta who delivered this discourse attributed
this schism among Nāṭaputta’s followers to the fact the Nāṭaputta’s
teaching had not been well taught nor well imparted, and was not
conducive to release from the round of existences, being taught by one
who was not supremely enlightened.

But the Buddha’s teaching was well taught, well imparted,
conducive to release from the round of existences, being taught by the
Buddha who was supremely enlightened. He advised the bhikkhus to recite
the Dhamma as taught by the Buddha, in concord and without dissension so
that the teaching should last long. Then he proceeded to enumerate the
Dhamma classified under separate heads as group of the ones, group of
the twos, etc., up to groups of the tens to facilitate easy memorizing
and reciting.

This discourse was also delivered by the Venerable Sāriputta,
while the Buddha was staying at Campā, in order that the bhikkhus should
get liberated from fetters and attain nibbāna, bringing about the end of suffering.

He taught the Dhamma classified under separate heads as group
of the ones, group of the twos, etc., up to the groups of the tens.

5. MAJJHIMA NIKĀYA

This collection of medium length discourses is made up of one
hundred and fifty-two suttas in three books known as paṇṇāsa. The first
book, Mūlapaṇṇāsa, deals with the first fifty suttas in five vaggas; the
second book, Majjhimapaṇṇāsa consists of the second fifty suttas, also
in five vaggas; and the last fifty-two suttas are dealt with in five
vaggas of the third book, Uparipaṇṇāsa, which means more than fifty.

The suttas in this nikāya throw much light on the social
ideas and institutions of those days, and also provide general
information on the economic and political life.

1 Mūlapaṇṇāsa Pāḷi
(a) Mūlapariyāya Vagga

The Buddha explained the basis of all phenomena, specifying
twenty-four categories such as the four elements (earth, water, fire,
wind); sentient beings, devas; the seen, the heard, the thought of, the known; the oneness, the multiplicity, the whole; and the reality of nibbāna.
The uninstructed worldling cannot perceive the true nature of these
phenomena; only the enlightened ones can see them in true perspective.

In this discourse, mental intoxicants that beset the
uninstructed worldling are defined, and seven practices for eradicating
them are explained.

This sutta contains two separate discourses, the first one
given by the Buddha, the second by the Venerable Sāriputta. The Buddha
urged the bhikkhus to receive as their legacy from him the bodhipakkhiya dhamma
only, and not material things like the four requisites. The Venerable
Sāriputta advised the bhikkhus to lead a solitary life for attainment of
jhāna and to strive for the attainment of nibbāna by abandoning greed, ill will, and delusion.

This discourse describes how a bhikkhu leading a solitary life
in a secluded forest invites harm and danger to himself by his impure
thoughts, words and deeds, and how the Buddha had lived a peaceful
forest life harmlessly by cultivating pure thoughts, words and deeds
which finally led him to enlightenment.

In this discourse given on the request of the Venerable Mahā
Moggallāna, the Venerable Sāriputta explained four types of individuals:

This sutta describes how a bhikkhu should develop sīla, samādhi and paññā, instead of craving for gain and fame; how he should restrain his faculties, seeing danger in the slightest fault.

In this discourse the Buddha explained the difference between
an impure mind and pure mind by giving the example of a dirty cloth and a
clean cloth. Only the clean cloth will absorb dye; so also only the
pure mind will retain the Dhamma.

In this discourse the Buddha explained to Mahā Cunda how wrong views about atta and loka can be removed only by Vipassana insight. The practice of jhāna
is not the austerity practice that removes moral defilements; it only
leads to a blissful existence. Only refraining from forty-four kinds of
bad deeds constitutes austerity practice for removing moral defilements.
The volition alone to do a good deed is enough to produce a good
result; when it is accompanied by the actual deed, the beneficial result
accruing is immeasurable. One immersed in the mire of sensuous
impurities cannot rescue others immersed likewise in the mire.

This discourse is an exposition on the right view, delivered by
the Venerable Sāriputta at Sāvatthi. When physical, verbal and mental
actions are motivated by greed, hatred and delusion, they are deemed to
be bad. When they arise through non-greed, non-hatred and non-delusion,
the actions are deemed to be good. Right View is understanding what a
good deed is and what a bad deed is; it is the full comprehension of the
Four Noble Truths and not holding on to eternity views concerning atta.

This discourse, given at Kammāsadhamma market town, is the most
important sutta which gives practical guidance for cultivation of
mindfulness. It describes the four methods of steadfast mindfulness,
namely, contemplating the body, contemplating sensation, contemplating
the mind, and contemplating the dhamma as the only way for the
purification of beings, for the overcoming of sorrow and lamentation,
for the complete destruction of pain and distress, for the attainment of
the noble magga, and for the realization of nibbāna.

This sutta appears in identical form in the Dīgha Nikāya.

(b) Sīhanāda Vagga

In this discourse, given at Sāvatthi, the Buddha made the bold statement that the four categories of ariyas, namely the stream-winner, the once-returner, the non-returner and the arahat exist only in his teaching and not in any other.

In this discourse, given at Vesāli, the Venerable Sāriputta
reported to the Buddha about the disparagement of the Buddha’s virtues
made by Sunakkhatta who had left the teaching. The Buddha said that
Sunakkhatta was not intellectually equipped to have the faintest glimpse
of the Buddha’s virtues such as the ten strengths, the four kinds of
supreme self-confidence, and the non-decline of sabbaññuta ñāṇa till the time of parinibbāna.
He then described the five destinations and the actions which lead to
them as well as the wrong beliefs and practices of the naked ascetics to
whose camp Sunakkhatta now belonged.

This discourse was given at Sāvatthi to refute the naked
ascetics when they tried to make out that they followed the same path
and taught the same Dhamma as the Buddha. The Buddha also explained to
the bhikkhus what the pleasures of the senses were, what their faults
and dangers were, and the way of escape from them. The Buddha explained
further that outside of his teaching, these dhammas were not known and no one but the Buddha and his disciples could teach such dhammas.

This discourse was given by the Buddha at Kapilavatthu to the
Sakyan Prince Mahānāma, to explain to him at his request how greed,
ill-will and ignorance cause moral defilements and suffering.

This discourse was given by the Venerable Mahā Moggallāna to
many bhikkhus at Susumāragiri in the country of Bhagga. They were urged
to see if they had purged themselves of sixteen kinds of stubbornness
such as inordinate desire, humiliating others while praising oneself,
wrathfulness, etc. If these sixteen kinds of unwholesome dhammas were detected in oneself, a determined effort should be made to get rid of them.

This discourse, given by the Buddha at Sāvatthi, mentions the
five kinds of mental thorns: doubt about the Buddha, doubt about the
Dhamma, doubt about the Sangha, doubt about the efficacy of the practice
in sīla, samādhi and paññā, ill-will and animosity
towards fellow bhikkhus. It also mentions the five fetters: attachment
to sensual desires, attachment to oneself, attachment to material
objects, immoderation in eating and sleeping, and adopting the holy life
with the limited objective of attaining only blissful existences. These
mental thorns and fetters are obstacles to liberation from dukkha. They should be removed and eradicated for realization of nibbāna.

This discourse, given at Sāvatthi, is concerned with the choice
of a suitable place for a bhikkhu. A bhikkhu has to depend on a forest
glade or a village or a town or an individual for his residence and
support. If he finds out any particular place is not satisfactory for
his spiritual development or for material support, he should abandon
that place at once.

If he finds it satisfactory with respect to material support,
but not beneficial for spiritual development, he should abandon that
place, too. But when it proves beneficial for spiritual development,
even if the material support is meagre, the bhikkhu should stay on in
that place. When conditions are satisfactory both for spiritual
development and material support, he should live in such a place for the
whole of his life.

A Sakyan Prince, named Daṇḍapāṇi, once asked the Buddha at
Kapilavatthu what doctrine he taught. The Buddha replied that his
doctrine was one which could not be grasped by any brahmin nor by māra. It is this: not to live in discord with any one in the world; not to be obsessed by sense impressions (saññā); not to be troubled by doubts; and not to crave for any form of existence.

This discourse was given by the Buddha at Sāvatthi to explain
two kinds of thinking: wholesome and unwholesome. Bhikkhus should
practise to see the advantages of engaging in wholesome thoughts and the
dangers of unwholesome thoughts.

This discourse was given by the Buddha at
Sāvatthi on how to combat the arising of unwholesome thoughts with
wholesome thoughts. For example, greed and sensuous thoughts should be
banished by contemplating on unpleasant and impermanent nature of the
object of desire; ill-will and hatred must be countered by thoughts of
loving-kindness; and ignorance may be overcome by seeking illumination
and guidance from the teacher. §