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Be a lamp unto yourself. Work out your liberation with diligence.– Buddha-31-08-2010 FREE ONLINE e- Nālandā UNIVERSITY-EDUCATE (BUDDHA)! MEDITATE (DHAMMA)! ORGANISE (SANGHA)!-LESSON – 16-WISDOM IS POWER-Anyone Can Attain Ultimate Bliss Just Visit:http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org-Course Programs:-Rebirth Part IV-The laws of kamma are as inviolable as the law of gravity-Paccha-bhumika Sutta-[Brahmans] of the Western Land-Why not just settle for divine rebirth among the devas?: -Upacala Sutta: Sister Upacala-The preciousness of our human life-Nakhasikha Sutta: The Tip of the Fingernail-Chiggala Sutta: The Hole-How to gain rebirth as an elephant or a horse-Janussonin Sutta: To Janussonin-What’s so bad about being reborn?:-Nālandā: A pleasant project-GOOD GOVERNANCE-Central Governments led by Congress and BJP and other parties responsible for poor plight of farmers-BSP against forced acquisition of agricultural lands of farmers in the country-BSP to support farmers’ proposed August 26 siege of Parliament-Carry out relief and rescue works on war-footing in flood affected areas —C.M.-Drive against adulterators to continue-State Medical and Health Minister demands Rs. 10 lakh assistance for family members of vaccine victims-Five health workers including a doctor suspended in Mohanlalganj vaccination incident-Rs. 50,000 aid provided to parents of deceased children
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Be a lamp unto yourself. Work out your liberation with diligence.
– Buddha

31-08-2010 FREE ONLINE e- Nālandā UNIVERSITY

EDUCATE (BUDDHA)!   MEDITATE (DHAMMA)!  ORGANISE (SANGHA)!

LESSON – 16

WISDOM IS POWER

Awakened One Shows the Path to Attain Ultimate Bliss

Anyone Can Attain Ultimate Bliss Just Visit:

http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org

COMPUTER IS AN ENTERTAINMENT INSTRUMENT!

INTERNET!

IS

ENTERTAINMENT NET!

TO BE MOST APPROPRIATE!

Using such an instrument

The Free e-Nālandā University has been re-organized to function through the following Schools of Learning :

Buddha Taught his Dhamma Free of cost, hence the Free- e-Nālandā follows suit

As the Original Nālandā University did not offer any Degree, so also the Free  e-Nālandā University.

Main Course Programs:

I.
KAMMA

REBIRTH

AWAKEN-NESS 

BUDDHA

THUS COME ONE

DHARMA

II.
ARHAT

FOUR HOLY TRUTHS

EIGHTFOLD PATH

TWELVEFOLD CONDITIONED ARISING

BODHISATTVA

PARAMITA

SIX PARAMITAS

III.

SIX SPIRITUAL POWERS

SIX PATHS OF REBIRTH

TEN DHARMA REALMS

FIVE SKANDHAS

EIGHTEEN REALMS

FIVE MORAL PRECEPTS

IV.

MEDITATION

MINDFULNESS

FOUR APPLICATIONS OF MINDFULNESS

LOTUS POSTURE

SAMADHI

CHAN SCHOOL

FOUR DHYANAS

FOUR FORMLESS REALMS

V.

FIVE TYPES OF BUDDHIST STUDY AND PRACTICE

MAHAYANA AND HINAYANA COMPARED

PURE LAND

BUDDHA RECITATION

EIGHT CONSCIOUSNESSES

ONE HUNDRED DHARMAS

EMPTINESS

VI.

DEMON

LINEAGE

with

Level I: Introduction to Buddhism

Level II: Buddhist Studies

TO ATTAIN

Level III: Stream-Enterer

Level IV: Once - Returner

Level V: Non-Returner
Level VI: Arhat

Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath scientific thought in

mathematics,

astronomy,

alchemy,

and

anatomy

Philosophy and Comparative Religions;

Historical Studies;

International Relations and Peace Studies;

Business Management in relation to Public Policy and Development Studies;

Languages and Literature;

and Ecology and Environmental Studies

 Welcome to the Free Online e-Nālandā University-

Course Programs:

Rebirth Part IV

http://what-buddha-said.net/drops/Rebirth.htm

The laws of kamma are as inviolable as the law of gravity: SN XLII.6

http://www.cambodianbuddhist.org/english/website/canon/samyutta/sn42-006.html

Samyutta Nikaya XLII.6

Paccha-bhumika Sutta

[Brahmans] of the Western Land

Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu.
For free distribution only.

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn42/sn42.006.than.html

·  Tipitaka ·  Samyutta Nikaya ·  SN 42 

SN 42.6 

PTS: S iv 311 

CDB ii 1336

Paccha-bhumika Sutta: [Brahmans] of the Western Land

translated from the Pali by

Thanissaro Bhikkhu

© 1999–2010

On one occasion the Blessed One was staying near Nālandā in the Pavarika Mango Grove. Then Asibandhakaputta the headman went to the Blessed One and on arrival, having bowed down to him, sat to one side. As he was sitting there he said to the Blessed One: “The brahmans of the Western lands, lord — those who carry water pots, wear garlands of water plants, purify with water, & worship fire — can take [the spirit of] a dead person, lift it out, instruct it, & send it to heaven. But the Blessed One, worthy & rightly self-awakened, can arrange it so that all the world, at the break-up of the body, after death, reappears in a good destination, the heavenly world.”

“Very well, then, headman, I will question you on this matter. Answer as you see fit. What do you think: There is the case where a man is one who takes life, steals, indulges in illicit sex; is a liar, one who speaks divisive speech, harsh speech, & idle chatter; is greedy, bears thoughts of ill-will, & holds to wrong views. Then a great crowd of people, gathering & congregating, would pray, praise, & circumambulate with their hands palm-to-palm over the heart [saying,] ‘May this man, at the break-up of the body, after death, reappear in a good destination, the heavenly world!’ What do you think: would that man — because of the prayers, praise, & circumambulation of that great crowd of people — at the break-up of the body, after death, reappear in a good destination, the heavenly world?”

“No, lord.”

Suppose a man were to throw a large boulder into a deep lake of water, and a great crowd of people, gathering & congregating, would pray, praise, & circumambulate with their hands palm-to-palm over the heart [saying,] ‘Rise up, O boulder! Come floating up, O boulder! Come float to the shore, O boulder!’ What do you think: would that boulder — because of the prayers, praise, & circumambulation of that great crowd of people — rise up, come floating up, or come float to the shore?”

“No, lord.”

“So it is with any man who takes life, steals, indulges in illicit sex; is a liar, one who speaks divisive speech, harsh speech, & idle chatter; is greedy, bears thoughts of ill-will, & holds to wrong views. Even though a great crowd of people, gathering & congregating, would pray, praise, & circumambulate with their hands palm-to-palm over the heart — [saying,] ‘May this man, at the break-up of the body, after death, reappear in a good destination, the heavenly world!’ — still, at the break-up of the body, after death, he would reappear in destitution, a bad destination, the lower realms, hell.

“Now what do you think: There is the case where a man is one who refrains from taking life, from stealing, & from indulging in illicit sex; he refrains from lying, from speaking divisive speech, from harsh speech, & from idle chatter; he is not greedy, bears no thoughts of ill-will, & holds to right view. Then a great crowd of people, gathering & congregating, would pray, praise, & circumambulate with their hands palm-to-palm over the heart [saying,] ‘May this man, at the break-up of the body, after death, reappear in destitution, a bad destination, the lower realms, hell!’ What do you think: would that man — because of the prayers, praise, & circumambulation of that great crowd of people — at the break-up of the body, after death, reappear in destitution, a bad destination, the lower realms, hell?”

“No, lord.”

Suppose a man were to throw a jar of ghee or a jar of oil into a deep lake of water, where it would break. There the shards & jar-fragments would go down, while the ghee or oil would come up. Then a great crowd of people, gathering & congregating, would pray, praise, & circumambulate with their hands palm-to-palm over the heart [saying,] ‘Sink, O ghee/oil! Submerge, O ghee/oil! Go down, O ghee/oil!’ What do you think: would that ghee/oil, because of the prayers, praise, & circumambulation of that great crowd of people sink, submerge, or go down?”

“No, lord.”

“So it is with any man who refrains from taking life, from stealing, & from indulging in illicit sex; refrains from lying, from speaking divisive speech, from harsh speech, & from idle chatter; is not greedy, bears no thoughts of ill-will, & holds to right view. Even though a great crowd of people, gathering & congregating, would pray, praise, & circumambulate with their hands palm-to-palm over the heart — [saying,] ‘May this man, at the break-up of the body, after death, reappear in a destitution, a bad destination, the lower realms, hell!’ — still, at the break-up of the body, after death, he would reappear in a good destination, the heavenly world.”

When this was said, Asibandhakaputta the headman said to the Blessed One: “Magnificent, lord! Magnificent! Just as if he were to place upright what was overturned, to reveal what was hidden, to point out the way to one who was lost, or to carry a lamp into the dark so that those with eyes could see forms, in the same way has the Blessed One — through many lines of reasoning — made the Dhamma clear. I go to the Blessed One for refuge, to the Dhamma, & to the community of monks. May the Blessed One remember me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge from this day forward, for life.”

Why not just settle for divine rebirth among the devas?: SN V.7

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn05/sn05.007.than.html

·  Tipitaka ·  Samyutta Nikaya ·  SN 5 

SN 5.7 

PTS: S i 133 

CDB i 227

Upacala Sutta: Sister Upacala

translated from the Pali by

Thanissaro Bhikkhu

© 1998–2010

Alternate translation: Bodhi

At Savatthi. Then, early in the morning, Upacala the nun put on her robes and, taking her bowl & outer robe, went into Savatthi for alms. When she had gone for alms in Savatthi and had returned from her alms round, after her meal she went to the Grove of the Blind to spend the day. Having gone deep into the Grove of the Blind, she sat down at the foot of a tree for the day’s abiding.

Then Mara the Evil One, wanting to arouse fear, horripilation, & terror in her, wanting to make her fall away from concentration, approached her & said, “Where do you want to reappear, nun?”

“I don’t want to reappear anywhere, my friend.”

[Mara:]

The devas of the Thirty-three,

the Hours, the Contented,

those who delight in creation,

& those in control:

          direct your mind there

          and it will enjoy

                   delight.

[Sister Upacala:]

The devas of the Thirty-three,

the Hours, the Contented,

those who delight in creation,

& those in control:

          they are bound

          with the bonds of sensuality;

          they come again

          under Mara’s sway.

The whole world is        burning.

The whole world is        aflame.

The whole world is        blazing.

The whole world is        provoked.

The Unprovoked, Unblazing

— that people run-of-the-mill

          don’t partake,

                   where Mara’s

                   never been —

          that’s where my heart

          truly delights.

Then Mara the Evil One — sad & dejected at realizing, “Upacala the nun knows me” — vanished right there.

Notes

1.

To reappear = to be reborn.

See also: SN 6.15; SN 9.6.

The preciousness of our human life: SN XX.2, SN LVI.48

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn20/sn20.002.than.html

·  Tipitaka ·  Samyutta Nikaya ·  SN 20 

SN 20.2 

PTS: S ii 263 

CDB i 706

Nakhasikha Sutta: The Tip of the Fingernail

translated from the Pali by

Thanissaro Bhikkhu

© 1999–2010

Staying at Savatthi. Then the Blessed One, picking up a little bit of dust with the tip of his fingernail, said to the monks, “What do you think, monks? Which is greater: the little bit of dust I have picked up with the tip of my fingernail, or the great earth?”

“The great earth is far greater, lord. The little bit of dust the Blessed One has picked up with the tip of his fingernail is next to nothing. It doesn’t even count. It’s no comparison. It’s not even a fraction, this little bit of dust the Blessed One has picked up with the tip of his fingernail, when compared with the great earth.

“In the same way, monks, few are the beings reborn among human beings. Far more are those reborn elsewhere. Thus you should train yourselves: ‘We will live heedfully.’ That’s how you should train yourselves.”

See also: Dhp 174.

·  Tipitaka ·  Samyutta Nikaya ·  SN 56 

SN 56.48 

PTS: S v 456 

CDB ii 1872

Chiggala Sutta: The Hole

translated from the Pali by

Thanissaro Bhikkhu

© 1998–2010

“Monks, suppose that this great earth were totally covered with water, and a man were to toss a yoke with a single hole there. A wind from the east would push it west, a wind from the west would push it east. A wind from the north would push it south, a wind from the south would push it north. And suppose a blind sea-turtle were there. It would come to the surface once every one hundred years. Now what do you think: would that blind sea-turtle, coming to the surface once every one hundred years, stick his neck into the yoke with a single hole?”

“It would be a sheer coincidence, lord, that the blind sea-turtle, coming to the surface once every one hundred years, would stick his neck into the yoke with a single hole.”

“It’s likewise a sheer coincidence that one obtains the human state. It’s likewise a sheer coincidence that a Tathagata, worthy & rightly self-awakened, arises in the world. It’s likewise a sheer coincidence that a doctrine & discipline expounded by a Tathagata appears in the world. Now, this human state has been obtained. A Tathagata, worthy & rightly self-awakened, has arisen in the world. A doctrine & discipline expounded by a Tathagata appears in the world.

“Therefore your duty is the contemplation, ‘This is stress… This is the origination of stress… This is the cessation of stress.’ Your duty is the contemplation, ‘This is the path of practice leading to the cessation of stress.’”

How to gain rebirth as an elephant or a horse: AN X.177 

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an10/an10.177.than.html#elephant

·  Tipitaka ·  Anguttara Nikaya ·  Tens 

AN 10.177 

PTS: A v 269

Janussonin Sutta: To Janussonin

(On Offerings to the Dead)

translated from the Pali by

Thanissaro Bhikkhu

© 2004–2010

Then Janussonin the brahman went to the Blessed One and, on arrival, exchanged courteous greetings with him. After an exchange of friendly greetings & courtesies, he sat to one side. As he was sitting there, he said to the Blessed One, “Master Gotama, you know that we brahmans give gifts, make offerings, [saying,] ‘May this gift accrue to our dead relatives. May our dead relatives partake of this gift.’ Now, Master Gotama, does that gift accrue to our dead relatives? Do our dead relatives partake of that gift?”

“In possible places, brahman, it accrues to them, but not in impossible places.”

“And which, Master Gotama, are the possible places? Which are the impossible places?”

“There is the case, brahman, where a certain person takes life, takes what is not given, engages in sensual misconduct, engages in false speech, engages in divisive speech, engages in abusive speech, engages in idle chatter, is covetous, bears ill will, and has wrong views. With the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in hell. He lives there, he remains there, by means of whatever is the food of hell-beings. This is an impossible place for that gift to accrue to one staying there.

“Then there is the case where a certain person takes life, takes what is not given, engages in sensual misconduct, engages in false speech, engages in divisive speech, engages in abusive speech, engages in idle chatter, is covetous, bears ill will, and has wrong views. With the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the animal womb. He lives there, he remains there, by means of whatever is the food of common animals. This, too, is an impossible place for that gift to accrue to one staying there.

“Then there is the case where a certain person refrains from taking life, refrains from taking what is not given, refrains from sensual misconduct, refrains from false speech, refrains from divisive speech, refrains from abusive speech, refrains from idle chatter, is not covetous, bears no ill will, and has right views. With the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the company of human beings. He lives there, he remains there, by means of whatever is the food of human beings. This, too, is an impossible place for that gift to accrue to one staying there.

“Then there is the case where a certain person refrains from taking life, refrains from taking what is not given, refrains from sensual misconduct, refrains from false speech, refrains from divisive speech, refrains from abusive speech, refrains from idle chatter, is not covetous, bears no ill will, and has right views. With the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the company of the devas. He lives there, he remains there, by means of whatever is the food of devas. This, too, is an impossible place for that gift to accrue to one staying there.

“Then there is the case where a certain person takes life, takes what is not given, engages in sensual misconduct, engages in false speech, engages in divisive speech, engages in abusive speech, engages in idle chatter, is covetous, bears ill will, and has wrong views. With the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the realms of the hungry shades. He lives there, he remains there, by means of whatever is the food of hungry shades. He lives there, he remains that, by means of whatever his friends or relatives give in dedication to him. This is the possible place for that gift to accrue to one staying there.

“But, Master Gotama, if that dead relative does not reappear in that possible place, who partakes of that gift?”

“Other dead relatives, brahman, who have reappeared in that possible place.”

“But, Master Gotama, if that dead relative does not reappear in that possible place, and other dead relatives have not reappeared in that possible place, then who partakes of that gift?”

“It’s impossible, brahman, it cannot be, that over this long time that possible place is devoid of one’s dead relatives.  But at any rate, the donor does not go without reward.

“Does Master Gotama describe any preparation for the impossible places?”

“Brahman, I do describe a preparation for the impossible places. There is the case where a certain person takes life, takes what is not given, engages in sensual misconduct, engages in false speech, engages in divisive speech, engages in abusive speech, engages in idle chatter, is covetous, bears ill will, and has wrong views. But he gives food, drink, cloth, vehicles, garlands, scents, creams, bed, lodging, & lamps to priests & contemplatives. With the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the company of elephants. There he receives food, drink, flowers, & various ornaments. It’s because he took life, took what is not given, engaged in sensual misconduct, engaged in false speech, engaged in divisive speech, engaged in abusive speech, engaged in idle chatter, was covetous, bore ill will, and had wrong views that he reappears in the company of elephants. But it’s because he gave food, drink, cloth, vehicles, garlands, scents, creams, bed, lodging, & lamps to priests & contemplatives that he receives food, drink, flowers, & various ornaments.

“Then there is the case where a certain person takes life… has wrong views. But he gives food… lamps to priests & contemplatives. With the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the company of horses… in the company of cattle… in the company of poultry. There he receives food, drink, flowers, & various ornaments. It’s because he took life… and had wrong views that he reappears in the company of poultry. But it’s because he gave food, drink… & lamps to priests & contemplatives that he receives food, drink, flowers, & various ornaments.

“Then there is the case where a certain person refrains from taking life, refrains from taking what is not given, refrains from sensual misconduct, refrains from false speech, refrains from divisive speech, refrains from abusive speech, refrains from idle chatter, is not covetous, bears no ill will, and has right views. And he gives food, drink, cloth, vehicles, garlands, scents, creams, bed, lodging, & lamps to priests & contemplatives. With the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the company of human beings. There he experiences the five strings of human sensuality [delightful sights, sounds, smells, tastes, tactile sensations]. It’s because he refrained from taking what is not given, refrained from sensual misconduct, refrained from false speech, refrained from divisive speech, refrained from abusive speech, refrained from idle chatter, was not covetous, bore no ill will, and had right views that he reappears in the company of human beings. And it’s because he gave food, drink, cloth, vehicles, garlands, scents, creams, bed, lodging, & lamps to priests & contemplatives that he experiences the five strings of human sensuality. 

“Then there is the case where a certain person refrains from taking life… and has right views. And he gives food, drink, cloth, vehicles, garlands, scents, creams, bed, lodging, & lamps to priests & contemplatives. With the break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the company of devas. There he experiences the five strings of divine sensuality [delightful sights, sounds, smells, tastes, tactile sensations]. It’s because he refrained from taking what is not given… and had right views that he reappears in the company of devas. And it’s because he gave food, drink, cloth, vehicles, garlands, scents, creams, bed, lodging, & lamps to priests & contemplatives that he experiences the five strings of divine sensuality. But at any rate, brahman, the donor does not go without reward.”

“It’s amazing, Master Gotama, it’s astounding, how it’s enough to make one want to give a gift, enough to make one want to make an offering, where the donor does not go without reward.”

“That’s the way it is, brahman. That’s the way it is. The donor does not go without reward.”

Magnificent,  Master Gotama! Magnificent! Just as if he were to place upright what was overturned, to reveal what was hidden, to show the way to one who was lost, or to carry a lamp into the dark so that those with eyes could see forms, in the same way has Master Gotama — through many lines of reasoning — made the Dhamma clear. I go to Master Gotama for refuge, to the Dhamma, & to the community of monks. May Master Gotama remember me as a lay follower who has gone to him for refuge, from this day forward, for life.”

Notes

1.

The Vinaya counts as one’s relatives all those related back through seven generations past one’s grandparents — in other words, all those descended from one’s great-great-great-great-great-great-great-grandparents.

2.

Apparently, “ornaments” for poultry would consist of brilliant plumage. Similarly, “ornaments” for elephants, horses, & cattle might consist of attractive markings.

3.

For some reason, the PTS translation of this sutta cuts off right here.

See also: MN 135; MN 136; SN 42.6; SN 42.8; Khp 7.

What’s so bad about being reborn?: SN V.6

·  Tipitaka ·  Samyutta Nikaya ·  SN 5 

At Savatthi. Then, early in the morning, Cala the nun put on her robes and, taking her bowl & outer robe, went into Savatthi for alms. When she had gone for alms in Savatthi and had returned from her alms round, after her meal she went to the Grove of the Blind to spend the day. Having gone deep into the Grove of the Blind, she sat down at the foot of a tree for the day’s abiding.

Then Mara the Evil One, wanting to arouse fear, horripilation, & terror in her, wanting to make her fall away from concentration, approached her & said, “What is it that you don’t approve of, nun?”

“I don’t approve of birth, my friend.”

[Mara:]

Why don’t you approve of birth?

          One who is born

          enjoys sensual pleasures.

Who on earth

ever persuaded you:

          ‘Nun, don’t approve of birth’?

[Sister Cala:]

For one who is born

                   there’s death.

One who is born

                   sees pain.

It’s a binding, a flogging, a torment.

That’s why one shouldn’t approve

                   of birth.

The Awakened One taught me the Dhamma

          — the overcoming of birth —

          for the abandoning of all pain,

                   he established me in

                   the truth.

But beings who have come to form

& those with a share in the formless,

          if they don’t discern cessation,

          return to becoming-again.

Then Mara the Evil One — sad & dejected at realizing, “Cala the nun knows me” — vanished right there.

LIGHT OF ASIA: Nobel Laureate and Chairman Nalanda Mentor Group (NMG) Amartya Sen (right), along with Singaporean Foreign Minister and member of NMG, George Yeo, addressing a press conference in New Delhi, on August 3, 2010. Photo: V. Sudershan
LIGHT OF ASIA: Nobel Laureate and Chairman Nalanda Mentor Group (NMG) Amartya Sen (right), along with Singaporean Foreign Minister and member of NMG, George Yeo, addressing a press conference in New Delhi, on August 3, 2010.

Nālandā: A pleasant project

The passage of the Nālandā University Bill by Parliament is a firm indication that Jambudipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath is moving in the direction of a pleasant power on Asia and the world. This is reinforced by the efficient completion of the South Asian University project under SAARC and Jambudipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath’s decision to open up its higher education sector to global inputs and competition. Initially, Nālandā University was to be launched in 2009, but the question of funding and the defining of its basic structure took more time than expected. The idea of reviving it as a centre of excellence in the creation and dissemination of knowledge in Asia was first mooted by President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam in February 2006 during his official visit to Singapore. He then elaborated on it while addressing the Bihar Assembly.

Both Bihar and Singapore got motivated to translate the idea into a concrete project. The Assembly passed a bill in 2007 to establish Nālandā University, acquired land for it but handed over the project to the government of India in view of its emerging international character. Singapore pursued the idea more vigorously than even India did in some respects and to propagate it in East Asia organised a “Nālandā Symposium” in November 2006. As a result, it succeeded in enlisting the support of East Asian countries, especially China, Japan and Korea, for the project. Singapore has also joined hands with Japan in mobilising funds for giving shape to the project and executing it.

As a result of all these efforts, the East Asia Summit (a grouping of ASEAN plus six countries — China, Japan, Jambudipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath, Korea, Australia and New Zealand) not only spontaneously endorsed the project in 2007 but in 2009, at its fourth summit, called upon all its members to make “appropriate funding arrangements on a voluntary basis from government and other sources including public-private partnership” for this “non-state, non-profit, secular and self-governing international institution.”

Nālandā University is destined to emerge as a strong instrument of a pleasant power at two levels; for the rising Asia in relation to the West and for Jambudipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath in relation to Asia. As the project recaptures its past glory and élan, it will boost Asia’s confidence in its intellectual and academic capacities and dent the heavy reliance that exists today on the western universities like Oxford, Cambridge and Harvard for Asian scholars’ professional credibility and recognition. This is underlined by Amartya Sen, chairman of the Nālandā Mentor Group (NMG), in his pointer that “Oxford was rising when Nālandā was declining” and now the new Nālandā should reflect Asia’s re-emergence. Defining the link between the Nālandā project and Asia’s rise, Singapore Foreign Minister George Yeo, who is also an NMG member, described the project as the “icon of Asian Renaissance” adding, “as Asia re-emerges on the world stage this century, its civilisational origins will become a subject of intense study and debate. Asians will look back to their own past and derive inspiration from it for the future.”

A senior Jambudipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath official after the New York meeting of the NMG in May 2008 said the objective of Nālandā was “to emphasise the importance of eastern intellectual endeavour and ensure that human aspiration is not being dominated by the western imprint.” Nālandā will build itself in the course of time as a vehicle for propagating the constructive and creative dimensions of oriental thought and knowledge systems based on Asian philosophies, experiences and practices that seldom find adequate place in contemporary western curricula.

The revival of Nālandā University is a multinational project, in partnership with Asian countries. The NMG member, Professor Wang Bangwei of Peking University, emphasised that “Nālandā belonged to not only India but all Asian Buddhists.” It will spurt activities and processes towards building an Asian community and cannot be used as an instrument of competitive diplomacy in the region. While participating in the 2006 symposium in Singapore, Professor Wang Dehua of the Shanghai Centre for International Studies referred to India-China relations in the context of Nālandā saying: “Let us forget about the 1962 incident. This project will symbolise the rebuilding of our old friendship and understanding. In the future, we will be able to reach the dream of an Asian community with a project like this.”

Other scholars at the symposium like Professor Tan Chung from Jambudipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath also elaborated on this theme, recalling that when the Han dynasty was on the verge of collapse in the sixth century, the spread of Buddhism from Nālandā helped China revive. The message is loud and clear — Nālandā should bring Jambudipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath and China, as also other Asian countries, closer.

Without invoking any competitive drive with its Asian neighbours, Nālandā would help Jambudipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath consolidate its position in the region. Since the university is based in Jambudipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath, scholars and students going out of Nālandā would become Jambudipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath’s goodwill ambassadors in their countries, generally at the critical levels of decision-making. Through the Nālandā alumni, Jambudipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath will also be able to showcase its cultural richness, democratic commitments, secular ethos and innovative strength in the frontier areas of knowledge. The boost in tourism and marketing of knowledge and cultural products in Asia would be a bonus for Jambudipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath, as also for other countries.

The completion and further expansion of the Nālandā project will not be without challenges. It will have to be insulated from the strong undercurrents of competitive strategic moves among its Asian stakeholders. Jambudipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath will also have to ensure that its bureaucratic processes do not intervene and erode the efficiency of this all-Asian project.

Funding the project would indeed be a formidable challenge, even as a public-private

enterprise. The present target is to create an endowment of $1 billion. Harvard University’s endowment is $35 billion. The funding constraint restrained the NMG from opening faculties in hard sciences and frontier areas of knowledge. This will handicap Nālandā in becoming a real centre of excellence in knowledge creation and thus in competing with the well endowed western Universities. The stakeholders of the project seem to be acutely aware of these challenges. It is hoped that they will be overcome as the project unfolds.

GOOD GOVERNANCE

Press Information Bureau

(C.M. Information Campus)

Information & Public Relations Department, U.P.

Central Governments led by Congress and BJP and other parties responsible for poor plight of farmers

BSP against forced acquisition of agricultural lands of farmers in the country

BSP to support farmers’ proposed August 26 siege of Parliament

Lucknow : 22 August 2010

The Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Ms. Mayawati, while holding

the Congress led UPA Government and also the BJP and other

parties led Central Governments responsible for the sad plight of

the farmers and also for the problem of naxalism, said that owing

to the flaws of the land acquisition law of the Central Government

the farmers were forced to take to the roads to solve their

problems. She said that owing to the misuse of the Land

Acquisition Act and also because of the mentality of grabbing

farmers’ land, this situation had emerged at present. She said that

since 1894 the farmers had been demanding change in this law

and to define the ‘public purpose’ as well. But, the anti-farmer and

pro-industrialist Central Governments did not pay any attention in

this regard during the last 6 decades.

Ms. Mayawati said that it was very unfortunate that on one

hand the farmers demanded amendment in the Land Acquisition

Act, while on the other and the Congress led UPA Government

ignored their demands and gave away 50000 hectare land of the

farmers to industrialists in the name of SEZ so that they can

become billionaires. She said that the farmers of the country were

angry because of the anti-farmer policies of the Centre.

The CM said that the forest dwellers were also facing similar

situation. She said that for years the lands of the forest dwellers

were given away to the industrialists in the name of

industrialisation and lakhs of forest dwellers were rendered

landless and because of it they had now resorted to naxalism. She

said that it was very unfortunate that the Congress led UPA

Government instead of solving the basic problem, was taking

police action against the forest dwellers. She said that the problem

of naxalism could not be solved through bullets. This problem could be solved by changing the conditions, she pointed out. She

further said that as soon as the mentality of grabbing forest

dwellers’ land was checked, the problem of naxalism would be

solved.

Ms. Mayawati said that the NDA Government led by BJP was

also responsible for the land acquisition related problems of the

farmers. She said that the NDA Government ruled the country for

6 years and during that period it did not solve the problems of the

farmers and effected any change in the land acquisition laws. She

said that the BJP should pressurise the Central Government to

amend the Land Acquisition Act 1894.

Ms. Mayawati said that by amending the Land Acquisition

Act, the mentality of forcible acquisition of land of the farmers

could be changed. She said that BSP was always of the opinion

that the land of the farmers should be taken with their consent. In

the year 2007, the BSP Government formulated a new policy to

protect the interests of the farmers at the time of land acquisition.

Under it, the land of the farmers would be taken under the

agreement rules. She made it clear that the State Government

was totally against the forcible acquisition of land of the farmers.

Ms. Mayawati said that she supported farmers’ proposed

August 26 siege of Parliament. The farmers of the country have

decided to gherao the Parliament to enforce amendment in the

Land Acquisition Act, so that their problems could be solved.

Showing her agreement with the demand of the farmers to amend

this act, she said that she would take all possible steps in this

regard.

The CM said that as far as the land related problems of the

farmers of the Aligarh and Agra were concerned, they had been

solved. She said that the anti-government elements were trying to

worsen the law and order or the state under its pretext. She said

that the politicians visiting these districts should pressurise Central

Government to amend the Land Acquisition Act.

******

Carry out relief and rescue works on war-footing in flood affected areas —C.M.

Rs. 10 crore released for flood relief works

Rs. Two crore for repair works of

damaged roads and culverts

Lucknow: 28 August 2010

The Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Ms. Mayawati has directed the

officers to carry out relief and rescue works on war-footing. She has

directed the officers to make necessary arrangements in flood affected

districts, so that affected people could reach in relief camps at earliest

and they should be provided relief materials and medical facilities. Any

laxity in relief and rescue works would be severely dealt with, she

warned.

Ms. Mayawati was reviewing flood relief works at a high-level

meeting at her official residence here today. She said that the State

Government had released Rs. 10 crore for flood relief works so far and

all districts had got the required amount. She said that Rs. Two crore

had been given for repair works of damaged roads and culverts.

Besides, an amount of Rs. 2.5 crore had been made available to P.A.C.

for making arrangements of 33 new rubberised boats, motor-boats

and other necessary life saving equipments.

The C.M. said that the flood affected people should be

immediately provided the facilities of boats, motor boats, food articles

and medicines. She has also directed the officers to make special

security arrangements in flood affected areas. She said that there was

no lack of money for flood relief works.

Ms. Mayawati said that on her directives, Mr. Nasimuddin

Siddiqui had reviewed the relief works in flood affected districts of

Bijnor, Kanshiram Nagar, Ballia, Gonda and Bahraich. She said that following her directives, the Chief Secretary had reviewed flood relief

and rescue works at Government level on Aug. 25 last. She had

directed the senior government officers for regular monitoring of relief

and rescue works in flood affected areas, besides making necessary

arrangements.

The C.M. has also directed that monitoring of embankments

should be done continuously. She directed that repair work of Charsari

embankment damaged in Parsawal village situated on the border of

Barabanki-Gonda district should be done on war-footing. She directed

the Irrigation Minister to gauge the situation arising out of damaged

embankment by immediate aerial survey. She also directed the

officers for immediate relief and rescue works for flood affected village

people. She said that special attention should be given on

maintenance of embankments.

Ms. Mayawati has directed the officers to make proper

arrangements of medical facilities and ensure the prevention of

infectious diseases. It may be recalled that the Chief Minister had

directed to nominate senior departmental officers for the proper

functioning of health services in flood affected areas. Following her

directives, additional health directors had been assigned the

responsibility of management and monitoring of medical facilities in

flood relief camps in Bahraich, Sitapur, Lakhimpur-Kheri, Pilibhit,

Kanshiram Nagar, Meerut and Barabanki districts.

The Chief Minister has directed the District Magistrates of flood

affected districts to make flood control rooms more effective and take

immediate action on the information received there. She said that

repair works of damaged roads and bridges should be done

immediately. She said that concerning District Magistrates and

Divisional Commissioners had been given the powers to start

immediate repair works by taking decisions at their own level, so that

repair works could not get delayed. She has also directed the officers

to ensure the availability of fodder and vaccines for cattle in flood

affected areas.

Drive against adulterators to continue

Complain against milk and milk product adulteration

at telephone no. -0522-2258103 and 9454400201

Lucknow : 25 August 2010

As many as 304 FIRs were lodged and 196 out of 429 named persons

were arrested in a drive launched against the food adulterators on the directive

of the Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Ms. Mayawati from 1 June to 25 August

2010. Likewise, in a drive launched against the spurious and below standard

drugs, 186 FIRs were registered and 165 out of 233 named persons were

arrested during the drive. During this drive, articles worth Rs. 1.87 crore were

seized and spurious and below standard drugs worth Rs. 2.09 lakh were also

captured.

Giving this information here today, a Food and Drug Administration

Department spokesman said that the Chief Minister had directed the officers to

carry out this drive in the State till the problem of food adulteration and

spurious drugs was fully rooted out. The spokesman said that a drive launched

against the adulteration in milk and dairy products like paneer, ghee, khoya

etc. had been launched from 19 August. As many as 66 persons had been

named in 50 cases of adulteration caught in the raids. Out of these, 39 persons

had been arrested. During the drive, 60 quintals of khoya, 20 quintals of

adulterated ghee, 5 quintals of adulterated paneer and 2.85 lakh litres of

adulterated milk was captured and destroyed.

The spokesman said that 5 milk testing mobile vans had been pressed

into service in Lucknow district during the drive launched against adulteration

of milk. Trained milk analysts accompanied the van and provided on the spot

milk test reports to the people residing in various parts of the city. The

spokesman said that this experiment had given encouraging results as

preventive measures were taken against the erring milk suppliers.

The spokesman said that the people could lodge their complaints

regarding adulterated milk and dairy products on the telephone no. 0522-

2258103 and mobile no. 9454400201 which belong to Additional Commissioner

Enforcement, so that the adulterators could be punished severely. The

spokesman said that there was provision of life imprisonment for the

adulterators and warned them to desist from food adulteration.

The spokesman said that owing to the drive launched on the directives of

the CM, the problem of adulteration would be rooted out from the State very

soon.

State Medical and Health Minister demands Rs. 10 lakh assistance for family members of vaccine victims

Requests to provide sample test report at earliest

Lucknow: 24 August 2010

The Uttar Pradesh Medical and Health Minister Mr. Anant

Kumar Mishra has written a letter to the Union Health Minister to

provide Rs. 10 lakh assistance to the family members of the each

deceased child, who died in the immunisation incident that occurred

in Mohanlalganj area recently. He said in his letter that the

circumstances suggested that there was some problem with the

vaccine owing to which this incident occurred. He said that though

the C.M. had sanctioned Rs. 50,000 assistance for the family

members of each deceased, but the Central Government should also

provide them assistance in the interest of the immunisation drive. He

demanded that the quality of the vaccines being supplied in the State

should be given special focus.

Mr. Mishra said that the Food and Drug Administration

Department of the State Government had already sent the samples

of the vaccine to the Central Drug Laboratory, Kasauli, Himanchal

Pradesh for testing. He said that the report of the samples should be

provided to the State Government at the earliest as the Dr. G.K.

Malik Committee set up to investigate the incident could draw any

conclusion thereafter.

The Medical Health Minister, in his letter, said that the

Government of India supplied measles vaccines, syringes and vitamin

A syrup to the State. He said that the Dr. G.K. Malik Committee set

up by the State Government believed that the quality of vaccines,

syringes and vitamin A syrup should be checked, so that the incident

could be properly investigated.

Mr. Mishra said that the U.P. Chief Minister had taken the

incident very seriously and provided Rs. 50,000 assistance to the

family members of the deceased children from C.M.’s discretionary

fund. Besides, the guilty were suspended and the Dr. G.K. Malik

Committee had also carried out ‘Death Audit’.

Five health workers including a doctor suspended in Mohanlalganj vaccination incident

Rs. 50,000 aid provided to parents of deceased children

Magistrate inquiry ordered into incident

Lucknow : 21 August 2010

Taking serious note of the death of four children who died, when

they were administered vaccines yesterday, the State Government

ordered magistrate inquiry into the incident. The children belonging to

Bindauwa, Padminkhera and Ramgarhi villages under the Mohanlalganj

(Lucknow) CHC, died after they were vaccinated. The Government has

also ordered test of the vaccine. The parents of the deceased children

would be provided Rs. 50,000 assistance each through the Chief

Minister’s Discretionary Fund.

A spokesman said that five health personnel including one doctor

and four para-medical staff working under the Mohanlalganj CHC were

suspended and the Superintendent of the CHC Dr. K.S. Trivedi has been

asked to explain his conduct on slack administrative control. The

suspended health personnel included Dr. K.P. Upadhyaya Medical Officer

PHC Nigoha, Shri C.P. Yadav In-charge Cold Chain, A.N.M.s Christina

Charan, Akhtari Bano and Usha Verma have been placed under

suspension. All of them work under CHC Mohanlalganj. Departmental

inquiry has been ordered against them.

The Spokesman said that the Principal Secretary Medical Health

and Family Welfare Mr. Pradeep Shukla directed the D.G. Family Welfare

Dr. S.P. Ram and Chief Medical Officer Dr. A.K. Shukla to go to the

incident site along with their team. The team visited the villages and

inquired about the incident.

The Spokesman said that the vaccination programme would

remain suspended till the investigation is completed. He said that the

‘Death Audit’ of the deceased children was being conducted by the team

led by the HOD of the Paediatrics Department, Chhatrapati Shahuji

Maharaj Medical University to ascertain the cause of death.

The Spokesman said that the D.G. Family Welfare had been

directed to take full precautions in the vaccination programme, so that

such incidents were not repeated again. The spokesman appealed the

people not to feel any fear from this vaccination drive as the children

were being protected from six deadly diseases and it was being

conducted from earlier. He said that the mother-child protection drive

would continue in future as well.

******

Name - Mayawati, known as or called as Bahanji’ (Sister)

Political party - Bahujan Samaj Party The party’s political symbol is an Elephant.

Mayawati has been National President of the BSP since 2003.

She follows Buddhist traditions and customs.

Education –
1. B.A. from Kalindi College, Delhi University,
2. B.Ed. BMLG College, Ghaziabad, Meerut University,
3. Law Degree from the Delhi University

Father’s name - Mr. Prabhu Das, who retired from the Indian Government’s Postal Department as a section head.
Mother’s name - Mrs. Ramrati (housewife) not educated.

Date of Birth - 15 January, 1956

Place of Birth - Shrimati Sucheta Kriplani Hospital (formerly known as Lady Harding Hospital), New Delhi

Relatives - Six brothers and two sisters (besides herself)

Marital Status – She is not married and has taken a vow to remain unmarried

Permanent Address - C-57, Indrapuri, New Delhi-110012

Present Address - 14, Gurudwara Rakab Ganj Road, New Delhi-110001

Foreign Travels –
Visited Canada, Denmark, France, Japan, Switzerland, Korea and Taiwan in the capacity of the Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister.

London : To inaugurate the Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar Memorial Community Centre as Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) National Vice-President.

As a representative of India, addressed the UN General Assembly while participating in an international seminar on the topic, “Democracy through Partnership between Men and Women”, organized by the Inter Parliamentary Union (IPU) on 7th June, 2000 in New York, USA.

In 1995, Ms. Mayawati created history by becoming Indian’s first Aboriginal Inhabitant of Jambudvipa,i.e,PraBuddha Bharath (Untouchable or Scheduled Caste) woman chief minister
She is an Aboriginal Inhabitant of Jambudipa,i.e,PraBuddha Bharath (Scheduled caste Jatav sub-caste of the Chamar community).

She worked as a teacher in Delhi

In 1977, Aboriginal Inhabitant of Jambudvipa,i.e,PraBuddha Bharath (Untouchable or Scheduled Caste) politician Kanshi Ram and Mayawati became his follower.

In 1984 Kanshi Ram founded Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) and Mayawati joined his core team. Kanshi Ram founded BSP to represent Aboriginal Inhabitant of Jambudvipa,i.e,PraBuddha Bharath (Untouchable or Scheduled Castes/Trobes/OBCs) and Buddhists people of Jambudvipa,i.e,PraBuddha Bharath.

Thus Mayawati changed her career path and joined politics.

Mayawati won for the first time in the Lok Sabha elections of 1989 from Bijnor.

April 1994 - Elected to the Rajya Sabha from Uttar Pradesh

In 1995, while a member of the Rajya Sabha (Upper House), she became a Chief Minister in a short-lived coalition government
Became Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh 4 times –
(1) 1995 : 3rd June, 1995 to 18th October, 1995
(2) 1997 : 21st March, 1997 to 20th September, 1997
(3) 2002 : 3rd May, 2002 to 26th August, 2003
(4) 2007 : 13th May, 2007 to till date

15th December, 2001 – BSP founder Kanshi Ram declared her as the sole heir and political successor of him and the “Bahujan Movement” at a grand rally in the Lakshman Mela ground on the bank of river Gomti in the Uttar Pradesh capital Lucknow.

At Kanshi Ram’s funeral ceremonies in 2006, Mayawati said they had both been following Buddhist traditions and customs. She performed the last rites as Buddhist of Kanshi Ram. As per customs Females are not allowed to do last rites of dead person.
She said that she will convert to Buddhism after getting an absolute majority at the Centre

2007 –
Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Mayawati has been listed as one of the top eight woman achievers by the Newsweek magazine.

As a Chief Minister, Mayawati erected number of statues of Buddhist and SC/ST/OBC icons like Bhimrao Ambedkar, Shahuji Maharaj, Gautam Buddha, BSP founder Kanshi Ram and of herself.

In February 2010, Mayawati’s government approved a plan for a special police force to protect the statues.

Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Mayawati says Central Bureau of Investigation continuing the probe in the assets case against her under political pressure.And investigation was being conducted illegally.

At the last hearing in April, the Centre said it would reconsider the disproportionate assets case in view of Ms. Mayawati’s fresh representation to the CBI. Attorney-General G.E. Vahanvati then said: “The representation was received only a few days ago, and some more time is required to reconsider the whole case.”

In her application, Ms. Mayawati said income tax authorities had found her income (for the relevant period) bona fide through various orders, including the latest one on April 19, and hence no case remained to be investigated by the CBI.

Ms. Mayawati alleged that she was being discriminated against, pointing out that the CBI decided not to file an appeal against the order of a Patna special judge exonerating the former Railway Minister, Lalu Prasad, in a wealth case on the basis of the findings of income tax authorities.

Furthermore, the then Solicitor-General gave an opinion in favour of the former Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister, Mulayam Singh, not to include the income of his family members for purposes of a disproportionate assets case against him. Ms. Mayawati said the same yardstick should be applied to her.

CBI should drop the case in view of the order passed by the Commissioner of Income Tax (Appeals) giving her a clean chit.

Every year all the citizens Income Taxes are assessed and cleared by Income Tax authorities. How can the CBI find fault with them only in Ms Mayawati’s case? Does it mean that all that is being done ny the authorities are not genuine and only what CBI doing is genuine?

This is nothing but the very old traditional, venomous, caste based discrimination.

Interestingly, Mayawati had raised the ITAT decisions of April 5 and April 19 this year to allege double standards against the Centre, claiming the CBI had let them (Mulayam Singh and Lalu Prasad) off on the basis of Income tax clean chit. 

In the case of Lalu, the CBI refused to appeal against the order of the Special CBI Judge acquitting him in the DA case. When the State Government filed an appeal, the CBI challenged it all the way to the Supreme Court. On the other hand, Mulayam got a favourable legal opinion from a top law officer that forced the CBI to move an application to withdraw further prosecution against him. 

Mayawati had cited that Income tax department held that the entire gifts and receipts of her income for the assessment years 1999-2000 and 2004-05 were genuine. The Income Tax authorities have moved an appeal before the Allahabad High Court to set aside these findings.


Mayawati had cried hoarse over being harassed by the Centre, which was using the CBI as a political tool to target her. In this context, she wrote a representation to the CBI Director on April 20, seeking parity with her political counterparts Lalu and Mulayam.

Although the Government had assured the apex court to look into her representation, the affidavit makes it clear that the agency is determined to pursue against her. 

Mayawati, in her reply affidavit filed earlier, had said, “The CBI cannot discriminate between two individuals merely on the basis of its whims or choice as the same would be liable to be struck down in view of Article 14 read with Article 21 of the Constitution.”

Terming CBI as a “super statutory authority”, the affidavit by Mayawati had stated, “CBI being an authority created under the 1946 Act is bound by the finding of the fact recorded by another statutory authority under the I-T Act 1961.” She even cited a Supreme Court decision that held in 2007 that a finding arrived at by the I-T Appellate Tribunal is binding even on Supreme Court.


 

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08/30/10
Be vigilant; guard your mind against negative thoughts.– Buddha-30-08-2010 Rebirth Part III -LESSON – 15-WISDOM IS POWER-EDUCATE (BUDDHA)! MEDITATE (DHAMMA)! ORGANISE (SANGHA)!-FREE ONLINE e- Nālandā UNIVERSITY-Anyone Can Attain Ultimate Bliss Just Visit:http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org-Nirayavagga: Hell-Yamakavagga: Pairs
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Be vigilant; guard your mind against negative thoughts.
– Buddha

30-08-2010 Rebirth Part III LESSON – 15

WISDOM IS POWER

EDUCATE (BUDDHA)!   MEDITATE (DHAMMA)!  ORGANISE (SANGHA)!

30810 FREE ONLINE e- Nālandā UNIVERSITY

Awakened One Shows the Path to Attain Ultimate Bliss

Anyone Can Attain Ultimate Bliss Just Visit:

http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org

COMPUTER IS AN ENTERTAINMENT INSTRUMENT!

INTERNET!

IS

ENTERTAINMENT NET!

TO BE MOST APPROPRIATE!

Using such an instrument

The Free e-Nālandā University has been re-organized to function through the following Schools of Learning :

Buddha Taught his Dhamma Free of cost, hence the Free- e-Nālandā follows suit

As the Original Nālandā University did not offer any Degree, so also the Free  e-Nālandā University.

Main Course Programs:

I.
KAMMA

REBIRTH

AWAKEN-NESS 

BUDDHA

THUS COME ONE

DHARMA

II.
ARHAT

FOUR HOLY TRUTHS

EIGHTFOLD PATH

TWELVEFOLD CONDITIONED ARISING

BODHISATTVA

PARAMITA

SIX PARAMITAS

III.

SIX SPIRITUAL POWERS

SIX PATHS OF REBIRTH

TEN DHARMA REALMS

FIVE SKANDHAS

EIGHTEEN REALMS

FIVE MORAL PRECEPTS

IV.

MEDITATION

MINDFULNESS

FOUR APPLICATIONS OF MINDFULNESS

LOTUS POSTURE

SAMADHI

CHAN SCHOOL

FOUR DHYANAS

FOUR FORMLESS REALMS

V.

FIVE TYPES OF BUDDHIST STUDY AND PRACTICE

MAHAYANA AND HINAYANA COMPARED

PURE LAND

BUDDHA RECITATION

EIGHT CONSCIOUSNESSES

ONE HUNDRED DHARMAS

EMPTINESS

VI.

DEMON

LINEAGE

with

Level I: Introduction to Buddhism

Level II: Buddhist Studies

TO ATTAIN

Level III: Stream-Enterer

Level IV: Once - Returner

Level V: Non-Returner
Level VI: Arhat

Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath scientific thought in

mathematics,

astronomy,

alchemy,

and

anatomy

Philosophy and Comparative Religions;

Historical Studies;

International Relations and Peace Studies;

Business Management in relation to Public Policy and Development Studies;

Languages and Literature;

and Ecology and Environmental Studies

 Welcome to the Free Online e-Nālandā University-

Course Programs:

Rebirth Part III

http://what-buddha-said.net/drops/Rebirth.htm

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/dhp/dhp.22.than.html#310

·  Tipitaka ·  Khuddaka ·  Dhammapada

Dhp XXII 

PTS: Dhp 306-319

Nirayavagga: Hell

translated from the Pali by

Thanissaro Bhikkhu

© 1997–2010

Alternate translation: Buddharakkhita

306

He goes to hell,

the one who asserts

what didn’t take place,

as does the one

who, having done,

says, ‘I didn’t.’

Both — low-acting people —

there become equal:

after death, in the world beyond.

307-308

An ochre robe tied ’round their necks,

many with evil qualities

 — unrestrained, evil —

rearise, because of their evil acts,

          in hell.

Better to eat an iron ball

 — glowing, aflame —

than that, unprincipled &

          unrestrained,

you should eat the alms of the country.

309-310

Four things befall the heedless man

who lies down with the wife of another:

a wealth of demerit;

a lack of good sleep;

third, censure;

fourth, hell.

A wealth of demerit, an evil destination,

& the brief delight of a

          fearful man with a

          fearful woman,

& the king inflicts a harsh punishment.

          So

no man should lie down

with the wife of another.

311-314

Just as sharp-bladed grass,

if wrongly held,

wounds the very hand that holds it —

the contemplative life, if wrongly grasped,

drags you down to hell.

Any slack act,

or defiled observance,

or fraudulent life of chastity

bears no great fruit.

If something’s to be done,

then work at it firmly,

for a slack going-forth

kicks up all the more dust.

It’s better to leave a misdeed

          undone.

A misdeed burns you afterward.

Better that a good deed be done

that, after you’ve done it,

won’t make you burn.

315

Like a frontier fortress,

guarded inside & out,

          guard yourself.

Don’t let the moment pass by.

Those for whom the moment is past

grieve, consigned to hell.

316-319

Ashamed of what’s not shameful,

not ashamed of what is,

beings adopting wrong views

go to a bad destination.

Seeing danger where there is none,

& no danger where there is,

beings adopting wrong views

go to a bad destination.

Imagining error where there is none,

and seeing no error where there is,

beings adopting wrong views

go to a bad destination.

But knowing error as error,

and non-error as non-,

beings adopting right views

          go to a good

          destination.

Behaviour determines the destination after death: Dhp 17, Dhp 18, Dhp 240 

·  Tipitaka ·  Khuddaka ·  Dhammapada

Dhp I 

PTS: Dhp 1-20

Yamakavagga: Pairs

translated from the Pali by

Thanissaro Bhikkhu

© 1997–2010

Alternate translation: Buddharakkhita

1-2

Phenomena are   preceded by the heart,

             ruled by the heart,

             made of the heart.

If you speak or act

with a corrupted heart,

then suffering follows you —

as the wheel of the cart,

          the track of the ox

          that pulls it.

Phenomena are  preceded by the heart,

             ruled by the heart,

             made of the heart.

If you speak or act

with a calm, bright heart,

then happiness follows you,

like a shadow

          that never leaves.

3-6

‘He     insulted me,

             hit me,

             beat me,

             robbed me’

 — for those who brood on this,

          hostility isn’t stilled.

‘He insulted me,

hit me,

beat me,

robbed me’ —

for those who don’t brood on this,

          hostility is stilled.

   Hostilities aren’t stilled

          through hostility,

          regardless.

Hostilities are stilled

through non-hostility:

          this, an unending truth.

Unlike those who don’t realize

that we’re here on the verge

          of perishing,

those who do:

          their quarrels are stilled.

7-8

One who stays focused on the beautiful,

is unrestrained with the senses,

knowing no moderation in food,

apathetic, unenergetic:

          Mara overcomes him

          as the wind, a weak tree.

One who stays focused on the foul,

is restrained with regard to the senses,

knowing moderation in food,

full of conviction & energy:

          Mara does not overcome him

          as the wind, a mountain of rock.

9-10

He who,     depraved,

                 devoid

          of truthfulness

          & self-control,

puts on the ochre robe,

doesn’t deserve the ochre robe.

But he who is free

                         of depravity

                     endowed

                         with truthfulness

                         & self-control,

                     well-established

                         in the precepts,

truly deserves the ochre robe.

11-12

Those who regard

non-essence as essence

and see essence as non-,

don’t get to the essence,

          ranging about in wrong resolves.

But those who know

essence as essence,

and non-essence as non-,

get to the essence,

          ranging about in right resolves.

13-14

As rain seeps into

an ill-thatched hut,

so passion,

          the undeveloped mind.

As rain doesn’t seep into

a well-thatched hut,

so passion does not,

          the well-developed mind.

15-18

Here    he grieves

             he grieves  hereafter.

In both worlds

the wrong-doer grieves.

He grieves, he’s afflicted,

seeing the corruption

          of his deeds.

Here  he rejoices

             he rejoices     hereafter.

In both worlds

the merit-maker rejoices.

He rejoices, is jubilant,

seeing the purity

          of his deeds.

Here  he’s tormented

             he’s tormented  hereafter.

In both worlds

the wrong-doer’s tormented.

He’s tormented at the thought,

          ‘I’ve done wrong.’

Having gone to a bad destination,

he’s tormented

          all the more.

Here  he delights

             he delights     hereafter.

In both worlds

the merit-maker delights.

He delights at the thought,

          ‘I’ve made merit.’

Having gone to a good destination,

he delights

          all the more.

19-20

If he recites many teachings, but

          — heedless man —

doesn’t do what they say,

like a cowherd counting the cattle of

                 others,

he has no share in the contemplative life.

If he recites next to nothing

but follows the Dhamma

in line with the Dhamma;

          abandoning passion,

             aversion, delusion;

          alert,

          his mind well-released,

             not clinging

          either here or hereafter:

he has his share in the contemplative life.

Dhp I 

PTS: Dhp 1-20

Yamakavagga: Pairs

translated from the Pali by

Thanissaro Bhikkhu

© 1997–2010

Alternate translation: Buddharakkhita

235-238

          You are now

like a yellowed leaf.

          Already

Yama’s minions stand near.

You stand at the door to departure

but have yet to provide

for the journey.

Make an island for yourself!

Work quickly! Be wise!

With impurities all blown away,

          unblemished,

you’ll reach the divine realm

of the noble ones.

  You are now

right at the end of your time.

          You are headed

to Yama’s presence,

with no place to rest along the way,

but have yet to provide

for the journey.

Make an island for yourself!

Work quickly! Be wise!

With impurities all blown away,

          unblemished,

you won’t again undergo birth

                 & aging.

239

Just as a silver smith

step by

step,

          bit by

          bit,

             moment to

             moment,

blows away the impurities

of molten silver —

so the wise man, his own.

240

Just as rust

 — iron’s impurity —

eats the very iron

from which it is born,

          so the deeds

of one who lives slovenly

          lead him on

to a bad destination.

241-243

No recitation: the ruinous impurity

                 of chants.

No initiative: of a household.

Indolence: of beauty.

Heedlessness: of a guard.

In a woman, misconduct is an impurity.

In a donor, stinginess.

Evil deeds are the real impurities

in this world & the next.

More impure than these impurities

is the ultimate impurity:

          ignorance.

Having abandoned this impurity,

monks, you’re impurity-free.

 244-245

Life’s easy to live

for someone unscrupulous,

          cunning as a crow,

          corrupt, back-biting,

          forward, & brash;

but for someone who’s constantly

          scrupulous, cautious,

          observant, sincere,

          pure in his livelihood,

          clean in his pursuits,

                 it’s hard.

246-248

Whoever kills, lies, steals,

goes to someone else’s wife,

& is addicted to intoxicants,

          digs himself up

          by the root

right here in this world.

So know, my good man,

that bad deeds are reckless.

Don’t let greed & unrighteousness

oppress you with long-term pain.

249-250

People give

in line with their faith,

in line with conviction.

Whoever gets flustered

at food & drink given to others,

attains no concentration

by day or by night.

But one in whom this is

          cut    through

          up-    rooted

          wiped out —

attains concentration

by day or by night.

251

There’s no fire like passion,

no seizure like anger,

no snare like delusion,

no river like craving.

252-253

It’s easy to see

the errors of others,

but hard to see

your own.

You winnow like chaff

the errors of others,

but conceal your own —

like a cheat, an unlucky throw.

If you focus on the errors of others,

constantly finding fault,

your effluents flourish.

You’re far from their ending.

254-255

There’s no trail in space,

no outside contemplative.

People are smitten

with objectifications,

but devoid of objectification are

the Tathagatas.

There’s no trail in space,

no outside contemplative,

no eternal fabrications,

no wavering in the Awakened.

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Causes of favorable or painful rebirth: MN 135

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.135.than.html

  • Tipitaka
  •  Majjhima Nikaya
  •  AN III.65, Dhp 310, Dhp 316

    MN 135 

    PTS: M iii 202
    Cula-kammavibhanga Sutta: The Shorter Analysis of Action
    translated from the Pali by
    Thanissaro Bhikkhu
    Alternate translation: Ñanamoli

    I have heard that on one occasion the Blessed One was staying near Savatthi in Jeta’s Grove, Anathapindika’s monastery. Then Subha the student, Todeyya’s son, went to the Blessed One and, on arrival, exchanged courteous greetings with him. After an exchange of friendly greetings & courtesies, he sat to one side. As he was sitting there, he said to the Blessed One: “Master Gotama, what is the reason, what is the cause, why baseness & excellence are seen among human beings, among the human race? For short-lived & long-lived people are to be seen, sickly & healthy, ugly & beautiful, uninfluential & influential, poor & rich, low-born & high-born, stupid & discerning people are to be seen. So what is the reason, what is the cause, why baseness & excellence are seen among human beings, among the human race?”

    “Students, beings are owners of kamma, heir to kamma, born of kamma, related through kamma, and have kamma as their arbitrator. Kamma is what creates distinctions among beings in terms of coarseness & refinement.”

    “I don’t understand the detailed meaning of Master Gotama’s statement spoken in brief without explaining the detailed meaning. It would be good if Master Gotama taught me the Dhamma so that I might understand the detailed meaning of his brief statement.”

    “In that case, student, listen & pay close attention. I will speak.”

    “As you say, Master Gotama,” Subha the student responded.

    The Blessed One said: “There is the case, student, where a woman or man is a killer of living beings, brutal, bloody-handed, given to killing & slaying, showing no mercy to living beings. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in the plane of deprivation, the bad destination, the lower realms, hell. If, on the break-up of the body, after death — instead of reappearing in the plane of deprivation, the bad destination, the lower realms, hell — he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is short-lived wherever reborn. This is the way leading to a short life: to be a killer of living beings, brutal, bloody-handed, given to killing & slaying, showing no mercy to living beings.

    “But then there is the case where a woman or man, having abandoned the killing of living beings, abstains from killing living beings, and dwells with the rod laid down, the knife laid down, scrupulous, merciful, & sympathetic for the welfare of all living beings. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination, in the heavenly world. If, on the break-up of the body, after death — instead of reappearing in a good destination, in the heavenly world — he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is long-lived wherever reborn. This is the way leading to a long life: to have abandoned the killing of living beings, to abstain from killing living beings, to dwell with one’s rod laid down, one’s knife laid down, scrupulous, merciful, & sympathetic for the welfare of all living beings.

    “There is the case where a woman or man is one who harms beings with his/her fists, with clods, with sticks, or with knives. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in the plane of deprivation… If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is sickly wherever reborn. This is the way leading to sickliness: to be one who harms beings with one’s fists, with clods, with sticks, or with knives.

    “But then there is the case where a woman or man is not one who harms beings with his/her fists, with clods, with sticks, or with knives. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination… If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is healthy wherever reborn. This is the way leading to health: not to be one who harms beings with one’s fists, with clods, with sticks, or with knives.

    “There is the case, where a woman or man is ill-tempered & easily upset; even when lightly criticized, he/she grows offended, provoked, malicious, & resentful; shows annoyance, aversion, & bitterness. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in the plane of deprivation… If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is ugly wherever reborn. This is the way leading to ugliness: to be ill-tempered & easily upset; even when lightly criticized, to grow offended, provoked, malicious, & resentful; to show annoyance, aversion, & bitterness.

    “But then there is the case where a woman or man is not ill-tempered or easily upset; even when heavily criticized, he/she doesn’t grow offended, provoked, malicious, or resentful; doesn’t show annoyance, aversion, or bitterness. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination… If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is beautiful wherever reborn. This is the way leading to beauty: not to be ill-tempered or easily upset; even when heavily criticized, not to be offended, provoked, malicious, or resentful; nor to show annoyance, aversion, & bitterness.

    “There is the case where a woman or man is envious. He/she envies, begrudges, & broods about others’ gains, honor, respect, reverence, salutations, & veneration. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in the plane of deprivation… If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is not influential wherever reborn. This is the way leading to not being influential: to be envious, to envy, begrudge, & brood about others’ gains, honor, respect, reverence, salutations, & veneration.

    “But then there is the case where a woman or man is not envious. He/she does not envy, begrudge, or brood about others’ gains, honor, respect, reverence, salutations, or veneration. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination… If instead he/she comes to the human state, he/she is influential wherever reborn. This is the way leading to being influential: not to be envious; not to envy, begrudge, or brood about others’ gains, honor, respect, reverence, salutations, or veneration.

    “There is the case where a woman or man is not a giver of food, drink, cloth, sandals, garlands, scents, ointments, beds, dwellings, or lighting to priests or contemplatives. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death he/she reappears in the plane of deprivation… If instead he/she comes to the human state, he/she is poor wherever reborn. This is the way leading to poverty: not to be a giver of food, drink, cloth, sandals, garlands, scents, ointments, beds, dwellings, or lighting to priests or contemplatives.

    “But then there is the case where a woman or man is a giver of food, drink, cloth, sandals, scents, ointments, beds, dwellings, & lighting to priests & contemplatives. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination… If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is wealthy wherever reborn. This is the way leading to great wealth: to be a giver of food, drink, cloth, sandals, garlands, scents, ointments, beds, dwellings, & lighting to priests & contemplatives.

    “There is the case where a woman or man is obstinate & arrogant. He/she does not pay homage to those who deserve homage, rise up for those for whom one should rise up, give a seat to those to whom one should give a seat, make way for those for whom one should make way, worship those who should be worshipped, respect those who should be respected, revere those who should be revered, or honor those who should be honored. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in the plane of deprivation… If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is low-born wherever reborn. This is the way leading to a low birth: to be obstinate & arrogant, not to pay homage to those who deserve homage, nor rise up for… nor give a seat to… nor make way for… nor worship… nor respect… nor revere… nor honor those who should be honored.

    “But then there is the case where a woman or man is not obstinate or arrogant; he/she pays homage to those who deserve homage, rises up… gives a seat… makes way… worships… respects… reveres… honors those who should be honored. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination… If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is highborn wherever reborn. This is the way leading to a high birth: not to obstinate or arrogant; to pay homage to those who deserve homage, to rise up… give a seat… make way… worship… respect… revere… honor those who should be honored.

    “There is the case where a woman or man when visiting a priest or contemplative, does not ask: ‘What is skillful, venerable sir? What is unskillful? What is blameworthy? What is blameless? What should be cultivated? What should not be cultivated? What, having been done by me, will be for my long-term harm & suffering? Or what, having been done by me, will be for my long-term welfare & happiness?’ Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in the plane of deprivation… If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she will be stupid wherever reborn. This is the way leading to stupidity: when visiting a priest or contemplative, not to ask: ‘What is skillful?… Or what, having been done by me, will be for my long-term welfare & happiness?’

    “But then there is the case where a woman or man when visiting a priest or contemplative, asks: ‘What is skillful, venerable sir? What is unskillful? What is blameworthy? What is blameless? What should be cultivated? What should not be cultivated? What, having been done by me, will be for my long-term harm & suffering? Or what, having been done by me, will be for my long-term welfare & happiness?’ Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a good destination… If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is discerning wherever reborn. This is the way leading to discernment: when visiting a priest or contemplative, to ask: ‘What is skillful?… Or what, having been done by me, will be for my long-term welfare & happiness?’

    “So, student, the way leading to short life makes people short-lived, the way leading to long life makes people long-lived; the way leading to sickliness makes people sickly, the way leading to health makes people healthy; the way leading to ugliness makes people ugly, the way leading to beauty makes people beautiful; the way leading to lack of influence makes people uninfluential, the way leading to influence makes people influential; the way leading to poverty makes people poor, the way leading to wealth makes people wealthy; the way leading to low birth makes people low-born, the way leading to high birth makes people highborn; the way leading to stupidity makes people stupid, the way leading to discernment makes people discerning.

    Beings are owners of kamma, heir to kamma, born of kamma, related through kamma, and have kamma as their arbitrator. Kamma is what creates distinctions among beings in terms of coarseness & refinement….

    When this was said, Subha the student, Todeyya’s son, said to the Blessed One: “Magnificent, Master Gotama! Magnificent! Just as if he were to place upright what was overturned, to reveal what was hidden, to show the way to one who was lost, or to carry a lamp into the dark so that those with eyes could see forms, in the same way has Master Gotama — through many lines of reasoning — made the Dhamma clear. I go to Master Gotama for refuge, to the Dhamma, and to the Community of monks. May Master Gotama remember me as a lay follower who has gone to him for refuge, from this day forward, for life.”

    http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.065.than.html

  • Tipitaka
  •  Anguttara Nikaya
  •  Threes
  • AN 3.65 

    PTS: A i 188 
    Thai III.66
    Kalama Sutta: To the Kalamas
    translated from the Pali by
    Thanissaro Bhikkhu
    Alternate translation: Soma

    Translator’s note: 

    Although this discourse is often cited as the Buddha’s carte blanche for following one’s own sense of right and wrong, it actually says something much more rigorous than that. Traditions are not to be followed simply because they are traditions. Reports (such as historical accounts or news) are not to be followed simply because the source seems reliable. One’s own preferences are not to be followed simply because they seem logical or resonate with one’s feelings. Instead, any view or belief must be tested by the results it yields when put into practice; and — to guard against the possibility of any bias or limitations in one’s understanding of those results — they must further be checked against the experience of people who are wise. The ability to question and test one’s beliefs in an appropriate way is called appropriate attention. The ability to recognize and choose wise people as mentors is called having admirable friends. According to Iti 16-17, these are, respectively, the most important internal and external factors for attaining the goal of the practice. For further thoughts on how to test a belief in practice, see MN 61,MN 95, AN 7.80, and AN 8.53. For thoughts on how to judge whether another person is wise, see MN 110, AN 4.192, and AN 8.54.

    I have heard that on one occasion the Blessed One, on a wandering tour among theKosalans with a large community of monks, arrived at Kesaputta, a town of the Kalamas. The Kalamas of Kesaputta heard it said, “Gotama the contemplative — the son of the Sakyans, having gone forth from the Sakyan clan — has arrived at Kesaputta. And of that Master Gotama this fine reputation has spread: ‘He is indeed a Blessed One, worthy, & rightly self-awakened, consummate in knowledge & conduct, well-gone, a knower of the cosmos, an unexcelled trainer of those persons ready to be tamed, teacher of human & divine beings, awakened, blessed. He has made known — having realized it through direct knowledge — this world with its devas, maras, & brahmas, its generations with their contemplatives & priests, their rulers & common people; has explained the Dhamma admirable in the beginning, admirable in the middle, admirable in the end; has expounded the holy life both in its particulars & in its essence, entirely perfect, surpassingly pure. It is good to see such a worthy one.’”

    So the Kalamas of Kesaputta went to the Blessed One. On arrival, some of them bowed down to him and sat to one side. Some of them exchanged courteous greetings with him and, after an exchange of friendly greetings & courtesies, sat to one side. Some of them sat to one side having saluted him with their hands palm-to-palm over their hearts. Some of them sat to one side having announced their name & clan. Some of them sat to one side in silence.

    As they sat there, the Kalamas of Kesaputta said to the Blessed One, “Lord, there are some priests & contemplatives who come to Kesaputta. They expound & glorify their own doctrines, but as for the doctrines of others, they deprecate them, revile them, show contempt for them, & disparage them. And then other priests & contemplatives come to Kesaputta. They expound & glorify their own doctrines, but as for the doctrines of others, they deprecate them, revile them, show contempt for them, & disparage them. They leave us absolutely uncertain & in doubt: Which of these venerable priests & contemplatives are speaking the truth, and which ones are lying?”

    “Of course you are uncertain, Kalamas. Of course you are in doubt. When there are reasons for doubt, uncertainty is born. So in this case, Kalamas, don’t go by reports, by legends, by traditions, by scripture, by logical conjecture, by inference, by analogies, by agreement through pondering views, by probability, or by the thought, ‘This contemplative is our teacher.’ When you know for yourselves that, ‘These qualities are unskillful; these qualities are blameworthy; these qualities are criticized by the wise; these qualities, when adopted & carried out, lead to harm & to suffering’ — then you should abandon them.

    “What do you think, Kalamas? When greed arises in a person, does it arise for welfare or for harm?”

    “For harm, lord.”

    “And this greedy person, overcome by greed, his mind possessed by greed, kills living beings, takes what is not given, goes after another person’s wife, tells lies, and induces others to do likewise, all of which is for long-term harm & suffering.”

    “Yes, lord.”

    “Now, what do you think, Kalamas? When aversion arises in a person, does it arise for welfare or for harm?”

    “For harm, lord.”

    “And this aversive person, overcome by aversion, his mind possessed by aversion, kills living beings, takes what is not given, goes after another person’s wife, tells lies, and induces others to do likewise, all of which is for long-term harm & suffering.”

    “Yes, lord.”

    “Now, what do you think, Kalamas? When delusion arises in a person, does it arise for welfare or for harm?”

    “For harm, lord.”

    “And this deluded person, overcome by delusion, his mind possessed by delusion, kills living beings, takes what is not given, goes after another person’s wife, tells lies, and induces others to do likewise, all of which is for long-term harm & suffering.”

    “Yes, lord.”

    “So what do you think, Kalamas: Are these qualities skillful or unskillful?”

    “Unskillful, lord.”

    “Blameworthy or blameless?”

    “Blameworthy, lord.”

    “Criticized by the wise or praised by the wise?”

    “Criticized by the wise, lord.”

    “When adopted & carried out, do they lead to harm & to suffering, or not?”

    “When adopted & carried out, they lead to harm & to suffering. That is how it appears to us.”

    “So, as I said, Kalamas: ‘Don’t go by reports, by legends, by traditions, by scripture, by logical conjecture, by inference, by analogies, by agreement through pondering views, by probability, or by the thought, “This contemplative is our teacher.” When you know for yourselves that, “These qualities are unskillful; these qualities are blameworthy; these qualities are criticized by the wise; these qualities, when adopted & carried out, lead to harm & to suffering” — then you should abandon them.’ Thus was it said. And in reference to this was it said.

    “Now, Kalamas, don’t go by reports, by legends, by traditions, by scripture, by logical conjecture, by inference, by analogies, by agreement through pondering views, by probability, or by the thought, ‘This contemplative is our teacher.’ When you know for yourselves that, ‘These qualities are skillful; these qualities are blameless; these qualities are praised by the wise; these qualities, when adopted & carried out, lead to welfare & to happiness’ — then you should enter & remain in them.

    “What do you think, Kalamas? When lack of greed arises in a person, does it arise for welfare or for harm?”

    “For welfare, lord.”

    “And this ungreedy person, not overcome by greed, his mind not possessed by greed, doesn’t kill living beings, take what is not given, go after another person’s wife, tell lies, or induce others to do likewise, all of which is for long-term welfare & happiness.”

    “Yes, lord.”

    “What do you think, Kalamas? When lack of aversion arises in a person, does it arise for welfare or for harm?”

    “For welfare, lord.”

    “And this unaversive person, not overcome by aversion, his mind not possessed by aversion, doesn’t kill living beings, take what is not given, go after another person’s wife, tell lies, or induce others to do likewise, all of which is for long-term welfare & happiness.”

    “Yes, lord.”

    “What do you think, Kalamas? When lack of delusion arises in a person, does it arise for welfare or for harm?”

    “For welfare, lord.”

    “And this undeluded person, not overcome by delusion, his mind not possessed by delusion, doesn’t kill living beings, take what is not given, go after another person’s wife, tell lies, or induce others to do likewise, all of which is for long-term welfare & happiness.”

    “Yes, lord.”

    “So what do you think, Kalamas: Are these qualities skillful or unskillful?”

    “Skillful, lord.”

    “Blameworthy or blameless?”

    “Blameless, lord.”

    “Criticized by the wise or praised by the wise?”

    “Praised by the wise, lord.”

    “When adopted & carried out, do they lead to welfare & to happiness, or not?”

    “When adopted & carried out, they lead to welfare & to happiness. That is how it appears to us.”

    “So, as I said, Kalamas: ‘Don’t go by reports, by legends, by traditions, by scripture, by logical conjecture, by inference, by analogies, by agreement through pondering views, by probability, or by the thought, “This contemplative is our teacher.” When you know for yourselves that, “These qualities are skillful; these qualities are blameless; these qualities are praised by the wise; these qualities, when adopted & carried out, lead to welfare & to happiness” — then you should enter & remain in them.’ Thus was it said. And in reference to this was it said.

    “Now, Kalamas, one who is a disciple of the noble ones — thus devoid of greed, devoid of ill will, undeluded, alert, & resolute — keeps pervading the first direction [the east] — as well as the second direction, the third, & the fourth — with an awareness imbued with good will. Thus he keeps pervading above, below, & all around, everywhere & in every respect the all-encompassing cosmos with an awareness imbued with good will: abundant, expansive, immeasurable, free from hostility, free from ill will.

    “He keeps pervading the first direction — as well as the second direction, the third, & the fourth — with an awareness imbued with compassion. Thus he keeps pervading above, below, & all around, everywhere & in every respect the all-encompassing cosmos with an awareness imbued with compassion: abundant, expansive, immeasurable, free from hostility, free from ill will.

    “He keeps pervading the first direction — as well as the second direction, the third, & the fourth — with an awareness imbued with appreciation. Thus he keeps pervading above, below, & all around, everywhere & in every respect the all-encompassing cosmos with an awareness imbued with appreciation: abundant, expansive, immeasurable, free from hostility, free from ill will.

    “He keeps pervading the first direction — as well as the second direction, the third, & the fourth — with an awareness imbued with equanimity. Thus he keeps pervading above, below, & all around, everywhere & in every respect the all-encompassing cosmos with an awareness imbued with equanimity: abundant, expansive, immeasurable, free from hostility, free from ill will.

    “Now, Kalamas, one who is a disciple of the noble ones — his mind thus free from hostility, free from ill will, undefiled, & pure — acquires four assurances in the here-&-now:

    “‘If there is a world after death, if there is the fruit of actions rightly & wrongly done, then this is the basis by which, with the break-up of the body, after death, I will reappear in a good destination, the heavenly world.’ This is the first assurance he acquires.

    “‘But if there is no world after death, if there is no fruit of actions rightly & wrongly done, then here in the present life I look after myself with ease — free from hostility, free from ill will, free from trouble.’ This is the second assurance he acquires.

    “‘If evil is done through acting, still I have willed no evil for anyone. Having done no evil action, from where will suffering touch me?’ This is the third assurance he acquires.

    “‘But if no evil is done through acting, then I can assume myself pure in both respects.’ This is the fourth assurance he acquires.

    “One who is a disciple of the noble ones — his mind thus free from hostility, free from ill will, undefiled, & pure — acquires these four assurances in the here-&-now.”

    “So it is, Blessed One. So it is, O One Well-gone. One who is a disciple of the noble ones — his mind thus free from hostility, free from ill will, undefiled, & pure — acquires four assurances in the here-&-now:

    “‘If there is a world after death, if there is the fruit of actions rightly & wrongly done, then this is the basis by which, with the break-up of the body, after death, I will reappear in a good destination, the heavenly world.’ This is the first assurance he acquires.

    “‘But if there is no world after death, if there is no fruit of actions rightly & wrongly done, then here in the present life I look after myself with ease — free from hostility, free from ill will, free from trouble.’ This is the second assurance he acquires.

    “‘If evil is done through acting, still I have willed no evil for anyone. Having done no evil action, from where will suffering touch me?’ This is the third assurance he acquires.

    “‘But if no evil is done through acting, then I can assume myself pure in both ways.’ This is the fourth assurance he acquires.

    “One who is a disciple of the noble ones — his mind thus free from hostility, free from ill will, undefiled, & pure — acquires these four assurances in the here-&-now.

    “Magnificent, lord! Magnificent! Just as if he were to place upright what was overturned, to reveal what was hidden, to show the way to one who was lost, or to carry a lamp into the dark so that those with eyes could see forms, in the same way has the Blessed One — through many lines of reasoning — made the Dhamma clear. We go to the Blessed One for refuge, to the Dhamma, and to the Sangha of monks. May the Blessed One remember us as lay followers who have gone to him for refuge, from this day forward, for life.”


    Behaviour determines the destination after death: Dhp 17

     Dhp 18, Dhp 240 
    The laws of kamma are as inviolable as the law of gravity: SN XLII.6
    Why not just settle for divine rebirth among the devas?: SN V.7
    The preciousness of our human life: SN XX.2, SN LVI.48
    How to gain rebirth as an elephant or a horse: AN X.177 
    What’s so bad about being reborn?: SN V.6

    http://www.mahabodhi-ladakh.org/

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    Welcome to Mahabodhi International Meditation Centre

    The Mahabodhi International Meditation Centre (MIMC) is a great example of one man’s vision turning into reality. Venerable Bhikkhu Sanghasena established the Mahabodhi International Meditation Center in 1986 to offer both spiritual instructions as well as desperately needed humanitarian services to impoverished people in the remote land of Ladakh.

    A dedicated team of social workers, teachers, doctors, monks, nuns, community leaders and care-providers have created an integrated community at Devachan in Ladakh which provides comprehensive care to all segments of society: children, elderly, special needs individuals, monks & nuns, the sick, as well as those seeking spiritual development. The community has become a model for the region through sustainable, ecological development. With the support of our sponsors we hope to be able to contribute our part to this goal by serving the people of Ladakh. You are most welcome to join us in this effort.

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    Beings are owners of their action, heirs of their action.
    – Buddha

    28-08-2010

    LESSON –13

    WISDOM IS POWER

    EDUCATE(BUDDHA)!    MEDITATE(DHAMMA)! ORGANISE(SANGHA)!

    28810 Free Online e-Nālandā University

    Awakened One Shows the Path to Attain Ultimate Bliss

    Anyone Can Attain Ultimate Bliss

    Just Visit:

    http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org

    COMPUTER IS AN ENTERTAINMENT INSTRUMENT!

    INTERNET!

    IS

    ENTERTAINMENT NET!

    TO BE MOST APPROPRIATE!

    Using such an instrument

    The Free e-Nālandā University has been re-organized to function through the following Schools of Learning :

    Buddha Taught his Dhamma Free of cost, hence the Free- e-Nālandā follows suit

    As the Original Nālandā University did not offer any Degree, so also the Free  e-Nālandā University.

    Main Course Programs:

    I.
    KAMMA

    REBIRTH

    AWAKEN-NESS 

    BUDDHA

    THUS COME ONE

    DHAMMA

    II.
    ARHAT

    FOUR HOLY TRUTHS

    EIGHTFOLD PATH

    TWELVEFOLD CONDITIONED ARISING

    BODHISATTVA

    PARAMITA

    SIX PARAMITAS

    III.

    SIX SPIRITUAL POWERS

    SIX PATHS OF REBIRTH

    TEN DHARMA REALMS

    FIVE SKANDHAS

    EIGHTEEN REALMS

    FIVE MORAL PRECEPTS

    IV.

    MEDITATION

    MINDFULNESS

    FOUR APPLICATIONS OF MINDFULNESS

    LOTUS POSTURE

    SAMADHI

    CHAN SCHOOL

    FOUR DHYANAS

    FOUR FORMLESS REALMS

    V.

    FIVE TYPES OF BUDDHIST STUDY AND PRACTICE

    MAHAYANA AND HINAYANA COMPARED

    PURE LAND

    BUDDHA RECITATION

    EIGHT CONSCIOUSNESSES

    ONE HUNDRED DHARMAS

    EMPTINESS

    VI.

    DEMON

    LINEAGE

    with

    Level I: Introduction to Buddhism

    Level II: Buddhist Studies

    TO ATTAIN

    Level III: Stream-Enterer

    Level IV: Once - Returner

    Level V: Non-Returner
    Level VI: Arhat

    Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath scientific thought in

    mathematics,

    astronomy,

    alchemy,

    and

    anatomy

    Philosophy and Comparative Religions;

    Historical Studies;

    International Relations and Peace Studies;

    Business Management in relation to Public Policy and Development Studies;

    Languages and Literature;

    and Ecology and Environmental Studies

     Welcome to the Free Online e-Nālandā University-

    Course Programs: 

    REBIRTH

    Rare is Human Rebirth!

    What moves at death to the next life? Is it consciousness?
    No! since consciousness arise & cease right here, it cannot move anywhere!
    It is not continuous, but contiguous discrete mental states as pearls on a string.
    The prior moment of consciousness contains the properties that conditions the
     
    arising of the next moment of consciousness! These inherent properties are 
    mainly craving for (conscious) sensing and craving for becoming into new being.
    If these cravings are present in the rebirth-linking moment of consciousness, then
    the next moment of consciousness will arise immediately after the death moment,
    but now in another location and body, which qualities (or lack of) indeed also are
    conditioned by properties within the rebirth-linking moment of consciousness…

    Example: If deluded ignorance is dominant in the rebirth-linking moment of consciousness,
    then an animal rebirth is to be expected. If harmonious peace and well earned settled 
    mental calmness based on a long life of doing good are the dominant factors right in the 
    rebirth-linking moment of consciousness, then a divine deva rebirth is to be expected. 
    If anger, hostile enmity, envy and hate are dominant in the rebirth-linking moment of 
    consciousness, rebirth in hell is to be expected…
    So what actually passes on is CAUSALITY: That is conditioning factors or forces!
    Nothing more! No form, feeling, perception, construction, or consciousness passes on.
    No “Self, I, Me, Body, Identity, or Ego” passes on, because they never really existed 
    in the first place, so how can they ever then pass on?!?

    The classic example is the 2 candles:
    Candle A is in flame. (=Dying individuality)
    This is then used to light or ignite Candle B (=Reborn individuality).
    By this very ignition the flame of Candle A is extinguished…
    Only candle B is now burning: What was now passed on!?!
    Is the flame of Candle B now the SAME, as the flame of Candle A?
    Not so. Candle B burns by its own flame, but it was turned on by flame A!
    Is the flame of Candle B now DIFFERENT from the flame of Candle A?
    Not really so either. Since Candle B started burning from the flame A!

    What is Reborn?: Neither the SAME nor ANOTHER!
    What am ‘I’ & ‘Person’?: Neither the SAME nor ANOTHER!
    Not a fixed entity, but a streaming process of ever renewed
    arisings and ceasings of impersonal mental and physical states…
    Just moments of name-&-form passes on!  

    In brevity:
    Question: What passes on at death?
    Answer: The forces or streams of: Ignorance, Greed, & Hate,
     
    and derivatives thereof, passes on at death and also in every
    moment of this life! One is reborn not only at death, but at
    every conscious moment of life itself also…
    Re-arising millions of times per second!
    Neither as the same, nor as another…

    Rebirth-Linking Transmigration!

    http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/bps-essay_46.html

    Does Rebirth Make Sense?

    by

    Bhikkhu Bodhi

    © 2005–2010

    Newcomers to Buddhism are usually impressed by the clarity, directness, and earthy practicality of the Dhamma as embodied in such basic teachings as the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, and the threefold training. These teachings, as clear as day-light, are accessible to any serious seeker looking for a way beyond suffering. When, however, these seekers encounter the doctrine of rebirth, they often balk, convinced it just doesn’t make sense. At this point, they suspect that the teaching has swerved off course, tumbling from the grand highway of reason into wistfulness and speculation. Even modernist interpreters of Buddhism seem to have trouble taking the rebirth teaching seriously. Some dismiss it as just a piece of cultural baggage, “ancient Indian metaphysics,” that the Buddha retained in deference to the world view of his age. Others interpret it as a metaphor for the change of mental states, with the realms of rebirth seen as symbols for psychological archetypes. A few critics even question the authenticity of the texts on rebirth, arguing that they must be interpolations.

    A quick glance at the Pali suttas would show that none of these claims has much substance. The teaching of rebirth crops up almost everywhere in the Canon, and is so closely bound to a host of other doctrines that to remove it would virtually reduce the Dhamma to tatters. Moreover, when the suttas speak about rebirth into the five realms — the hells, the animal world, the spirit realm, the human world, and the heavens — they never hint that these terms are meant symbolically. To the contrary, they even say that rebirth occurs “with the breakup of the body, after death,” which clearly implies they intend the idea of rebirth to be taken quite literally.

    In this essay I won’t be arguing the case for the scientific validity of rebirth. Instead, I wish to show that the idea of rebirth makes sense. I will be contending that it “makes sense” in two ways: first, in that it is intelligible, having meaning both intrinsically and in relation to the Dhamma as a whole; and second, in that it helps us to make sense, to understand our own place in the world. I will try to establish this in relation to three domains of discourse, the ethical, the ontological, and the soteriological. Don’t be frightened by the big words: the meaning will become clear as we go along.

    First, the teaching of rebirth makes sense in relation to ethics. For early Buddhism, the conception of rebirth is an essential plank of its ethical theory, providing an incentive for avoiding evil and doing good. In this context, the doctrine of rebirth is correlated with the principle of kamma, which asserts that all our morally determinate actions, our wholesome and unwholesome deeds, have an inherent power to bring forth fruits that correspond to the moral quality of those deeds. Read together, the twin teachings of rebirth and kamma show that a principle of moral equilibrium obtains between our actions and the felt quality of our lives, such that morally good deeds bring agreeable results, bad deeds disagreeable results.

    It is only too obvious that such moral equilibrium cannot be found within the limits of a single life. We can observe, often poignantly, that morally unscrupulous people might enjoy happiness, esteem, and success, while people who lead lives of the highest integrity are bowed down beneath pain and misery. For the principle of moral equilibrium to work, some type of survival beyond the present life is required, for kamma can bring its due retribution only if our individual stream of consciousness does not terminate with death. Two different forms of survival are possible: on the one hand, an eternal afterlife in heaven or hell, on the other a sequence of rebirths. Of these alternatives, the hypothesis of rebirth seems far more compatible with moral justice than an eternal afterlife; for any finite good action, it seems, must eventually exhaust its potency, and no finite bad action, no matter how bad, should warrant eternal damnation.

    It may be the case that this insistence on some kind of moral equity is an illusion, an unrealistic demand we superimpose on a universe cold and indifferent to our hopes. There is no logical way to prove the validity of rebirth and kamma. The naturalist might just be right in holding that personal existence comes to an end at death, and with it all prospects for moral justice. Nevertheless, I believe such a thesis flies in the face of one of our deepest moral intuitions, a sense that some kind of moral justice must ultimately prevail. To show that this is so, let us consider two limiting cases of ethically decisive action. As the limiting case of immoral action, let us take Hitler, who was directly responsible for the dehumanizing deaths of perhaps ten million people. As the limiting case of moral action, let us consider a man who sacrifices his own life to save the lives of total strangers. Now if there is not survival beyond death, both men reap the same ultimate destiny. Before dying, perhaps, Hitler experiences some pangs of despair; the self-sacrificing hero enjoys a few seconds knowing he’s performing a noble deed. Then beyond that — nothing, except in others’ memories. Both are obliterated, reduced to lifeless flesh and bones.

    Now the naturalist might be correct in drawing this conclusion, and in holding that those who believe in survival and retribution are just projecting their own wishes out upon the world. But I think something within us resists consigning both Hitler and our compassionate hero to the same fate. The reason we resist is because we have a deep intuitive sense that a principle of moral justice is at work in the world, regulating the course of events in such a way that our good and bad actions rebound upon ourselves to bring the appropriate fruit. Where the naturalist holds that this intuition amounts to nothing more than a projection of our own ideals out upon the world, I would contend that the very fact that we can conceive a demand for moral justice has a significance that is more than merely psychological. However vaguely, our subjective sense of moral justice reflects an objective reality, a principle of moral equilibrium that is not mere projection but is built into the very bedrock of actuality.

    The above considerations are not intended to make belief in rebirth a necessary basis for ethics. The Buddha himself does not try to found ethics on the ideas of kamma and rebirth, but uses a purely naturalistic type of moral reasoning that does not presuppose personal survival or the working of kamma. The gist of his reasoning is simply that we should not mistreat others — by injuring them, stealing their belongings, exploiting them sexually, or deceiving them — because we ourselves are averse to being treated in such ways. Nevertheless, though the Buddha does not found ethics on the theory of rebirth, he does make belief in kamma and rebirth a strong inducement to moral behavior. When we recognize that our good and bad actions can rebound upon ourselves, determining our future lives and bringing us happiness or suffering, this gives us a decisive reason to avoid unwholesome conduct and to diligently pursue the good.

    The Buddha includes belief in rebirth and kamma in his definition of right view, and their explicit denial in wrong view. It is not that the desire for the fruits of good karma should be one’s main motive for leading a moral life, but rather that acceptance of these teachings inspires and reinforces our commitment to ethical ideals. These twin principles open a window to a wider background against which our pursuit of the moral life unfolds. They show us that our present living conditions, our dispositions and aptitudes, our virtues and faults, result from our actions in previous lives. When we realize that our present conditions reflect our kammic past, we will also realize that our present actions are the legacy that we will transmit to our kammic descendants, that is, to ourselves in future lives. The teaching of rebirth thus enables us to face the future with fortitude, dignity, and courage. If we recognize that no matter how debilitating our present conditions might be, no matter how limiting and degrading, we can still redeem ourselves, we will be spurred to exercise our will for the achievement of our future good. By our present actions of body, speech, and mind, we can transform ourselves, and by transforming ourselves, we can surmount all inner and outer obstacles and advance toward the final goal.

    The teachings of kamma and rebirth have a still deeper ethical significance than as simple pointers to moral responsibility. They show us not only that our personal lives are shaped by our own kammic past, but also that we live in an ethically meaningful universe. Taken in conjunction, they make the universe a cosmos, an orderly, integrated whole, with dimensions of significance that transcend the merely physical. The levels of order that we have access to by direct inspection or scientific investigation do not exhaust all the levels of cosmic order. There is system and pattern, not only in the physical and biological domains, but also in the ethical, and the teachings of kamma and rebirth reveal just what that pattern is. Although this ethical order is invisible to our fleshly eyes and cannot be detected by scientific apparatus, this does not mean it is not real. Beyond the range of normal perception, a moral law holds sway over our deeds and via our deeds over our destiny. It is just the principle of kamma, operating across the sequence of rebirths, that locks our volitional actions into the dynamics of the cosmos, thus making ethics an expression of the cosmos’s own intrinsic orderliness. At this point ethics begins to shade into ontology, which we will examine in the next part of this essay.

    The teaching of rebirth, taken in conjunction with the doctrine of kamma, implies that we live in a morally ordered universe, one in which our morally determinate actions bring forth fruits that in some way correspond to their own ethical quality. Though the moral law that links our actions with their fruits cannot be demonstrated experimentally in the same way that physical and chemical laws can be, this does not mean it is not real. It means only that, like quarks and quasars, it operates beyond the threshold of sensory perception. Far from being a mere projection of our subjective ideals, the moral law locks our volitional deeds into an all-embracing cosmic order that is perfectly objective in that it functions independently of our personal desires, views, and beliefs. Thus when we submit our behavior to the rule of ethics, we are not simply acting in ways that merit moral approval. By conforming to the principles of ethics we are doing nothing less than aligning ourselves with the Dhamma, the universal law of righteousness and truth which stands at the bedrock of the cosmos.

    This brings us to the ontological aspect of the Buddhist teaching on rebirth, its implications for understanding the nature of being. Buddhism sees the process of rebirth as integral to the principle of conditionality that runs through all existence. The sentient universe is regulated by different orders of causation layered in such a way that higher orders of causation can exercise dominion over lower ones. Thus the order of kamma, which governs the process of rebirth, dominates the lower orders of physical and biological causation, bending their energies toward the fulfillment of its own potential. The Buddha does not posit a divine judge who rules over the workings of kamma, rewarding and punishing us for our deeds. The kammic process functions autonomously, without a supervisor or director, entirely through the intrinsic power of volitional action. Interwoven with other orders in the vast, complex web of conditionality, our deeds produce their consequences just as naturally as seeds in a field bring forth their appropriate herbs and flowers.

    To understand how kamma can produce its effects across the succession of rebirths we must invert our normal, everyday conception of the relationship between consciousness and matter. Under the influence of materialistic biases we assume that material existence is determinative of consciousness. Because we witness bodies being born into this world and observe how the mind matures in tandem with the body, we tacitly take the body to be the foundation of our existence and mind or consciousness an evolutionary offshoot of blind material processes. Matter wins the honored status of “objective reality,” and mind becomes an accidental intruder upon an inherently senseless universe.

    From the Buddhist perspective, however, consciousness and the world coexist in a relationship of mutual creation which equally require both terms. Just as there can be no consciousness without a body to serve as its physical support and a world as its sphere of cognition, so there can be no physical organism and no world without some type of consciousness to constitute them as an organism and world. Though temporally neither mind nor matter can be regarded as prior to the other, in terms of practical importance the Buddha says that mind is the forerunner. Mind is the forerunner, not in the sense that it arises before the body or can exist independently of a physical substratum, but in the sense that the body and the world in which we find ourselves reflect our mental activity.

    It is mental activity, in the form of volition, that constitutes kamma, and it is our stock of kamma that steers the stream of consciousness from the past life into a new body. Thus the Buddha says: “This body, O monks, is old kamma, to be seen as generated and fashioned by volition, as something to be felt” (SN XI.37). It is not only the body, as a composite whole, that is the product of past kamma, but the sense faculties too (see SN XXV.146). The eye, ear, nose, tongue, body-sense, and mind-base are also fashioned by our past kamma, and thus kamma to some degree shapes and influences all our sensory experience. Since kamma is ultimately explained as volition (cetana), this means that the particular body with which we are endowed, with all its distinguishing features and faculties of sense, is rooted in our volitional activities in earlier lives. Precisely how past volition can influence the development of the zygote lies beyond the range of scientific explanation, but if the Buddha’s words are to be trusted such an influence must be real.

    The channel for the transmission of kammic influence from life to life across the sequence of rebirths is the individual stream of consciousness. Consciousness embraces both phases of our being — that in which we generate fresh kamma and that in which we reap the fruits of old kamma — and thus in the process of rebirth, consciousness bridges the old and new existences. Consciousness is not a single transmigrating entity, a self or soul, but a stream of evanescent acts of consciousness, each of which arises, briefly subsists, and then passes away. This entire stream, however, though made up of evanescent units, is fused into a unified whole by the causal relations obtaining between all the occasions of consciousness in any individual continuum. At a deep level, each occasion of consciousness inherits from its predecessor the entire kammic legacy of that particular stream; in perishing, it in turn passes that content on to its successor, augmented by its own novel contribution. Thus our volitional deeds do not exhaust their full potential in their immediately visible effects. Every volitional deed that we perform, when it passes, leaves behind a subtle imprint stamped upon the onward-flowing stream of consciousness. The deed deposits in the stream of consciousness a seed capable of bearing fruit, of producing a result that matches the ethical quality of the deed.

    When we encounter suitable external conditions, the kammic seeds deposited in our mental continuum rise up from their dormant condition and produce their fruits. The most important function performed by kamma is to generate rebirth into an appropriate realm, a realm that provides a field for it to unfold its stored potentials. The bridge between the old existence and the new is, as we said above, the evolving stream of consciousness. It is within this stream of consciousness that the kamma has been created through the exercise of volition; it is this same stream of consciousness, flowing on, that carries the kammic energies into the new existence; and it is again this same stream of consciousness that experiences the fruit. Conceivably, at the deepest level all the individual streams of consciousness are integrated into a single all-embracing matrix, so that, beneath the surface of events, the separate kammic accumulations of all living beings crisscross, overlap, and merge. This hypothesis — though speculative — would help account for the strange coincidences we sometimes meet that prick holes in our assumptions of rational order.

    The generative function of kamma in the production of new existence is described by the Buddha in a short but pithy sutta preserved in the Anguttara Nikaya (AN III.76). Venerable Ananda approaches the Master and says, “‘Existence, existence’ is spoken of, venerable sir. In what way is there existence?” The Buddha replies: “If there were no kamma ripening in the sensory realm, no sense-sphere existence would be discerned. If there where no kamma ripening in the form realm, no form-sphere existence would be discerned. If there were no kamma ripening in the formless realm, no formless-sphere existence would be discerned. Therefore, Ananda, kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the moisture for beings obstructed by ignorance and fettered by craving to be established in a new realm of existence, either low (sense-sphere), middling (form-sphere), or high (formless-sphere).”

    As long as ignorance and craving, the twin roots of the round of rebirths, remain intact in our mental continuum, at the time of death one especially powerful kamma will become ascendant and propel the stream of consciousness to the realm of existence that corresponds to its own “vibrational frequency.” When consciousness, as the seed, becomes planted or “established” in that realm it sprouts forth into the rest of the psycho-physical organism, summed up in the expression “name and form” (nama-rupa). As the organism matures, it provides the site for other past kammas to gain the opportunity to produce their results. Then, within this new existence, in response to our various kammically induced experiences, we engage in actions that engender fresh kamma with the capacity to generate still another rebirth. Thereby the round of existence keeps turning from one life to the next, as the stream of consciousness, swept along by craving and steered by kamma, assumes successive modes of embodiment.

    The ultimate implication of the Buddha’s teaching on kamma and rebirth is that human beings are the final masters of their own destiny. Through our unwholesome deeds, rooted in greed, hatred, and delusion, we create unwholesome kamma, the generative cause of bad rebirths, of future misery and bondage. Through our wholesome deeds, rooted in generosity, kindness, and wisdom, we beautify our minds and thereby create kamma productive of a happy rebirth. By using wisdom to dig more deeply below the superficial face of things, we can uncover the subtle truths hidden by our preoccupation with appearances. Thereby we can uproot the binding defilements and win the peace of deliverance, the freedom beyond the cycle of kamma and its fruit. This aspect of the Buddhist teaching on rebirth will be explored more fully in the third part of this essay.[1]

    http://www.aryaveda.com/aryaveda/dhyana/What%20Buddha%20Taught%20II.pdf

    With release, there is the knowledge, ‘Released.’ He discerns that ‘Birth is ended, the holy life fulfilled, the task done. There’s nothing further for this world.’ Just as if there were a pool of water in a

    mountain glen — clear, limpid, and unsullied — where a man with good eyesight standing on the bank could see shells, gravel, and pebbles, and also shoals of fish swimming about and resting, and it would occur to him, ‘This pool of water is

    clear, limpid, and unsullied. Here are these shells, gravel, and pebbles, and also these shoals of fish swimming about and resting.’

    What Buddha Taught

    Sutta Commentaries II

    www.sukhayana.com

    Version 1; Feb 23, 2010

    Dvedhavitakka Sutta:

    Two Sorts of Thinking

    Here is another one of the suttas written by

    common monks, which contains another silly method for gaining entry into the dhyanas. It as laughable as the one that said having eight special thoughts gets you into dhyana, but this sutta contains one of the most profound, earth shattering analogies I have ever seen. In this one analogy, Buddhas foretells and shows you exactly how Mara will destroy his teachings. It is really unbelievable, and it is one of the reasons I love Buddha.

    “”Monks, before my self-awakening, when I was still just an unawakened Bodhisatta, the thought occurred to me: ‘Why don’t I keep dividing my

    thinking into two sorts?’”

    Here the sutta claims Buddha started separating good thoughts from bad thoughts, then destroyed the bad thoughts. When he had good thoughts, the author claims it “promotes lack of vexation and

    leads to Unbinding”. Then, as if one thing leads to the other, the standard dhyana liturgy is repeated. How many millions of people have practiced positive thinking in body, mind, and deed? It is an old theory for a happy life, happy kamma. No one

    but this author says that this is the way to end rebirth. The Christians have this as their mainstay, and they say it leads to a rebirth in heaven. I think If you ask 1,000 Buddhists what happens when you only think good thoughts, I think they would say it will promote good karma, great merit, happy rebirth. How many Buddhists believe that they can think there way to Nirvana? I think there must be millions. Millions and millions of people “mindful of mental qualities”, listening and watching there

    thoughts, wanting liberation from rebirth by

    thinking. Then in this unremarkable sutta appears an anlogy from Buddha, untouched! The sutta has been massively changed. The sutta is about two sorts of

    thinking, good and bad.

    “He [Mara] would close off the safe, restful paththat led to their rapture, and would open up a false path, set out a male decoy, place a female decoy, and thus the large herd of deer…would fall

    into ruin & disaster. Then suppose that a certain man [Buddha] were to appear to that same large herd of deer, desiring their benefit, desiring their welfare, desiring their rest from bondage. He

    would open up the safe, restful path that led to their rapture, would close off the false path, take away the male decoy, destroy the female decoy, and thus the large herd of deer…would come into

    growth, increase, & abundance.

    The analogy is about evil people leading you down the wrong path with two phoney decoys, and Buddha removing and destroying the decoys. The sutta is about two types of thinking, good and bad.

    These must be the two phoney decoys of the false path which Buddha says is Mara’s game!

    This is about Buddha’s enlightenment day. Wouldn’t he be talking about what he rejected or withdrew from to attain enlightenment. And here is his analogy of the false path with two phoney decoys.

    And what are the phoney decoys he talks about, good and bad thoughts.

    Further, the real Buddha says he takes away and destroys the phoney decoys. So if you follow the analogy, not the common people (Mara) who have edited this sutta to mean it’s opposite, you see Buddha saying: “We have all been taught since our youth about what is good and bad. We are told

    there are good thoughts and bad thoughts. If you are serious about meditation and liberation, you don’t follow the worldly ways you have been taught and divide everything into good and bad. It is all just one thing. It is all karma, it is all thinking. Liberation is not liberation from evil, it is liberation from thinking and karma. You have to go in a

    different direction. Buddha might say, “When I realized this truth for myself, I could see the game that I had been playing was just a mind-game. It was not a good mind-game and a bad mind game, it

    was just a mind-game. I totally withdrew from the mind-game, and saw that it was the mind-game itself, which was suffering and the cause of suffering. As I withdrew, I found the blissful dhyanas, and insight.” That is how Buddha passed the night, withdrawing from the entire game.

    What is incredible about this sutta is that Mara has left the analogy intact, but destroyed the sutta. And how has Mara destroyed the sutta? The sutta now

    teaches exactly what Buddha’s analogy says is the false path! In other words, it is as if Buddha knew his meaning was going to be destroyed by Mara, so he made an analogy telling you how Mara was going to destroy the meaning. Do you see how

    incredible this is? The Buddha once said some meaningful things, but he knew Mara was going to destroy it and make it false. So he makes an analogy, telling you how the lies will be told. This is why I love Buddha. Where in any literature do

    you find such tremendous jokes, such tremendous wisdom. Mara has done a very good job, and has fooled billions of people with his lies, but here Buddha can have the last laugh.

    Samadhanga Sutta:

    The Factors of Concentration If had only one sutta to read forever, this sutta

    would be one at the top of the list. A proper subtitle of this sutta should be the “Five Levels of Samadhi”. It has all the great topics, which I have found worthy of understanding, plus one extra exciting analogy, which I have not heard before in

    the suttas, samadhi #5. The Buddha gives the four dhyana samadhis and then adds a fifth samadhi, which I have always considered fourth dhyana, but here he breaks it out as a new fifth level of samadhi, which has it’s own very special Buddha

    analogy. Whatever the Pali word used here, translating it as “concentration” is completely erroneous. To accurately translate, you have to know the meaning

    of the words, not just a dictionary understanding. “Samadhi” is probably the best way to translate it, because it is an unearthly state beyond focus, attention, concentration, and mind-consciousness.

    This sutta’s commentary requires a separate booklet, so go to that booklet for detailed analysis. The only major thing missing from this sutta is “How” to do it, advanced samadhi, and the discovery of the timeless Buddha.

    Maha-Assapura Sutta

    The Greater Discourse at Assapura

    Much of the liturgy of this sutta has been

    commented on in other books, so I will select new significant discoveries.

    With release, there is the knowledge, ‘Released.’ He discerns that ‘Birth is ended, the holy life fulfilled, the task done. There’s nothing further for this world.’ Just as if there were a pool of water in a mountain glen — clear, limpid, and unsullied — where a man with good eyesight standing on the bank could see shells, gravel, and pebbles, and also shoals of fish swimming about and resting, and it would occur to him, ‘This pool of water is clear, limpid, and unsullied. Here are these shells, gravel, and pebbles, and also these shoals of fish swimming about and resting.’

    The sutta is describing what is alledged to be the super-power of ending fermentations and thus realizing the ending of re-birth, fulfilling the holy life. What we really have is an analogy, so we are fairly confident that Buddha may have used a similar analogy. That is the only thing factual in the sutta. Notice the verbiage surrounding this image is just descriptions, and nowhere is there any “How to do it”. I would ignore everything but the analogy. It

    appears that at least three times someone added their beliefs. The entire sutta is usually in the analogy, and the rest is just common people telling you a bunch of nonsense. Such is the case with this sutta. I will explain how you can know the verbiage in this sutta is false. This is not a story of Buddha talking about the fulfillment of the holy life, and ending reincarnation. To understand logically, you may need a little logical understanding of what Buddha

    taught from my other booklets, but I will also be as descriptive as possible. I hope you will be able to understand the simple logic provided here. Buddha describes a pool of water in a mountain glen. Well, in the 4th dhyana, this is a common vision. It has been described in several of my booklets. This is a vision in the mind’s eye, inside the brain. The Soul has entered the 4th dhyana and everthing of this world has been left behind. But there is a connection between the Soul and the body. The mind’s eye in the brain develops a vision to account for what the souls is experiencing. Many such visions occur, but they are in the brain, not in the experience of soul. I hope this is clear. What is slightly unclear is what the soul knowledge is which is creating this vision. While this vision is very similar to beginning fourth dhyana visions, it has a twist. The twist is that his vision has a man

    standing on the bank of this pool, who is seeing sand, gravel, shells, and shoals of fish swimming and resting. In my opinion, this is not going to be a typical vision in the mind from the beginning of the fourth dhyana. While the pool of water can be a

    vision in his mind’s eye, the rest of it can be very different. It may still be visions in the mind’s eye, but it is more likely that this is slightly more advanced. Here is how it works. When the soul exits the container of consciousness in beginning 4th dhyana, you get mental visions of what your soul is

    experiencing. There are no pools of water above your head, and no lotus blossoms are opening up above your head. These are visions in your mind’s eye. Buddha had visions of a lace cloth covering his body-mind below him. So in 4th dhyana your

    soul has escaped the body-mind-world. So a fourth dhyana practitioner may try to get his bearings. He doesn’t exactly know where he is, and his soul may not have vast in depth vision. When he initially moves around to see where he is, he can get visions or soul experiences. Everyone knows they have a body-mind. We don’t

    think about it very much, but we are always on this earth. When someone does 4th dhyana, they leave the body-mind-world, the container of consciousness. Then what? Isn’t it logical as the soul gains insight that he discovers the earth very

    close by? If the soul is now outside the body, shouldn’t the earth be the next thing discovered? I think so. I hope you follow the logic. So, in my opinion, as Buddhas soul gained the ability to withdraw, he saw visions or soul knowledge of the earth from very close proximity. His soul went to a place on earth, where He felt himself at the edge of a pool of water, and He saw

    the shore had sand, pebbles, and shells beneath Him. Then his soul directed itself to the water and saw the life forms under the water. I have had many similar insights, and from my personal explorations, I have seen the same things, and they are visions or knowledge of the earth from explorations at the beginning of the 4th dhyana. The common people’s claim in the sutta of this

    being the ending of reincarnation and the ending of the path is a bit exaggerated. What you do know is that you are outside of this life, but that visions occur in the brain imitating what your soul experiences. In my opinion, this is not breaking rebirth. It gives you the ability to choose perhaps.

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    Buddhist Revival-PART IV

    WISDOM IS POWER

    EDUCATE(BUDDHA)!    MEDITATE(DHAMMA)! ORGANISE(SANGHA)!

    27-08-2010

    LESSON – 12

    27810 Free Online e-Nālandā University

    Awakened One Shows the Path to Attain Ultimate Bliss

    Anyone Can Attain Ultimate Bliss

    Just Visit:

    http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org

     

    COMPUTER IS AN ENTERTAINMENT INSTRUMENT!

    INTERNET!

    IS

    ENTERTAINMENT NET!

    TO BE MOST APPROPRIATE!

    Using such an instrument

    The Free e-Nālandā University has been re-organized to function through the following Schools of Learning :

    Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath scientific thought in

    mathematics,

    astronomy,

    alchemy,

    and

    anatomy

    Buddha Taught his Dhamma Free of cost, hence the Free- e-Nālandā follows suit

    As the Original Nālandā University did not offer any Degree, so also the Free  e-Nālandā University.

    Main Course Programs:

    I.
    KAMMA

    REBIRTH

    AWAKEN-NESS 

    BUDDHA

    THUS COME ONE

    DHARMA

    II.
    ARHAT

    FOUR HOLY TRUTHS

    EIGHTFOLD PATH

    TWELVEFOLD CONDITIONED ARISING

    BODHISATTVA

    PARAMITA

    SIX PARAMITAS

    III.

    SIX SPIRITUAL POWERS

    SIX PATHS OF REBIRTH

    TEN DHARMA REALMS

    FIVE SKANDHAS

    EIGHTEEN REALMS

    FIVE MORAL PRECEPTS

    IV.

    MEDITATION

    MINDFULNESS

    FOUR APPLICATIONS OF MINDFULNESS

    LOTUS POSTURE

    SAMADHI

    CHAN SCHOOL

    FOUR DHYANAS

    FOUR FORMLESS REALMS

    V.

    FIVE TYPES OF BUDDHIST STUDY AND PRACTICE

    MAHAYANA AND HINAYANA COMPARED

    PURE LAND

    BUDDHA RECITATION

    EIGHT CONSCIOUSNESSES

    ONE HUNDRED DHARMAS

    EMPTINESS

    VI.

    DEMON

    LINEAGE

    with

    Level I: Introduction to Buddhism

    Level II: Buddhist Studies

    TO ATTAIN

    Level III: Stream-Enterer

    Level IV: Once - Returner

    Level V: Non-Returner
    Level VI: Arhat

    Welcome to the Free Online e-Nālandā University

    THE BUDDHIST FLAG

     

    A much more recent symbol is the Buddhist flag. It was in designed in 1880 by Colonel Henry Steele Olcott an American journalist. It was first hoisted in 1885 in Sri Lanka and is a symbol of faith and peace, and is now used throughout the world to represent the Buddhism. 
    The five colours of the flag represent the colours of the aura that emanated from the body of the Buddha when he attained Awaken-ness

    Buddhist Symbols

    In the earliest centuries of Buddhism, statues of the Buddha were not used. Instead, Buddhist art consisted of images symbolizing the Buddha and his teachings, such as the lotus, the Wheel of the Law, the Bodhi tree and the Buddha’s footprints.

    Eventually, the Buddha image became one of the most popular representations in Buddhism, but these early symbols remain important and are frequently used to this day. They are especially important in Theravada Buddhistcountries like Sri Lanka and Thailand.

    As Buddhism spread, Buddhist symbolism was enriched by the cultures it came into contact with. This is especially true of Buddhism in Tibet, which has developed a rich symbolic tradition. The central symbols of Tibetan Buddhismare the Eight Auspicious Symbols, known in Sanskrit as Ashtamangala (ashta meaning eight and mangalameaning auspicious). The Eight Auspicious Symbols are printed on Tibetan prayer flags, incorporated into mandalas and thangkas, and used in other forms of ritual art. Another important symbol is the Wheel of Life, a symbolic representation of the universe as understood by Tibetan Buddhists.

    Other important types of symbolism in Buddhism include colors, especially the five colors of white, yellow, red, blue and green, and symbolic hand gestures called mudras. The articles in this section explore these Buddhist symbols, providing information on their history, meaning and use in Buddhism today. (For an introduction and quick guide to Buddhist colors, see our Chart of Buddhist Color Symbolism.)

    Abhaya MudraBhumisparsha MudraBuddha EyesBuddhapadaConch ShellBuddhist WheelDhammachakkaDharmachakra MudraDhammachakka Mudra

    Abhaya MudraBhumisparsha MudraBuddha EyesBuddhapada

    Dhyana MudraDhyana MudraEight Auspicious SymbolsEndless KnotEndless KnotGolden FishesGolden FishesLotusLotus

    Om Mani Padme HumOm Mani Padme HumParasolParasolSwastikaTriratna symbolTiratnaVarada MudraVarada Mudra

    Tibetan Wheel of LifeWheel of LifeZen circle symbolZen CircleBlueBlackGreenRed

    WhiteYellow

    Buddhist Revival in Mongolia

    Faith is returning to Mongolia after decades of Soviet repression, and with it reconstructed monasteries

    EG UUR, Mongolia – On the banks of the remote Uur River in northern Mongolia, the Dayan Derkh monastery stands as a testament to Mongolia’s religious revival.

    << The Dayan Derkh monastery. Photo by Ted Wood.

    This was one of hundreds of Buddhist monasteries destroyed in the 1930s as the Soviet Union brought Mongolia under its control and effectively banned Buddhism here. For decades, Mongolians had to restrict their faith to secret meetings and their gers – the traditional Mongolian felt tent homes.

    Since its return to democracy, Mongolia has rediscovered its strong religious heritage and its Buddhist followers are free to attend the scores of ancient monasteries that have been restored across this vast and nomadic nation.

    The rebuilding of the Dayan Derkh monastery was completed in 2006. Since then, it has been looked after by a caretaker called Ragchaa, who grew up in the area and was 12 years old when the original monastery was destroyed in 1938.

    “I used to come here and pray as a child,” Ragchaa, who like most Mongolians uses only one name, said as he unlocked the wooden door of the lodge-style monastery to let a visitor in. “I remember when the monks who worked here were rounded up and executed.”

    Dressed in a deel, the traditional robe worn by Mongolian men and women, the old caretaker entered slowly, shuffling clockwise around the one-room hall, as is Mongolian custom upon entering any building.

    Passing a faded calendar of the Dalai Lama hanging on the wall, Ragchaa stopped at the main altar to light a stick of incense, before solemnly clasping his hands together in front of a statue of Dayan Derkh, whom Ragchaa referred to as the monastery’s 13th-century patron saint. He turned to survey the hall. A dozen or so wooden benches stood scattered around; tapestries of religious figures hung from the ceiling.

    “The original monastery was much bigger,” Ragchaa said. “But this is a beautiful place.”

    DECADES OF OPPRESSION

    The full truth about the persecution of Mongolia’s Buddhists will probably never be known, but mass graves uncovered in recent years illuminate the grim fate that befell thousands of monks in the Soviet-inspired purges, which lasted until the 1960s.

    Norov, 83, who lives downstream from the Dayan Derkh monastery, recalled how her uncle, a monk, managed to flee from would-be killers on horseback. But he was never seen again, she said.

    “People used to hide prayer wheels and religious texts in their homes and practice their faith in secret,” she said. “We don’t have to do that anymore.”

    There are now 200 Buddhist monasteries in Mongolia, with several more under construction.

    But the Dayan Derkh monastery is still not operating as planned. For one, there are no monks trained and ready to move in yet.

    LAMAS NEEDED

    Hundreds of kilometers away, at the Gandantegchinleng monastery in Mongolia’s capital, Ulaanbaatar, young boys immersed themselves in Buddhist teachings, preparing for moves to monasteries across Mongolia. Among them were six young lamas-to-be being groomed to take over the Dayan Derkh monastery. The oldest, 26-year-old Tseren-ochir, studies at Gandantegchinleng’s associated University of Buddhism.

    “I decided to become a lama in 1998, because I wanted to dedicate myself to help the local people and to dedicate myself to all the animals in the world,” Tseren-ochir, dressed in a red and yellow robe, said after a class of reciting ancient Tibetan prayers.

    Another of the students bound for Dayan Derkh is Batkhuu, an orphan who said he was inspired to join the church by one of his father’s relatives.

    “He was a lama,” said Batkhuu, 15. “I used to come to his house and pretend chanting, even though I didn’t really know how to do it.”

    Lamaism, or Tibetan Buddhism, arrived in the 13th century, around the same time Genghis Kahn began his imperial conquests.

    Centuries later, one of Mongolia’s leaders, Altan Khan, sanctioned the so-called Yellow Sect of Buddhism and authorized widespread construction of temples, shrines and monasteries. At one point, Mongolia claimed more than 700 temples and 7,000 shrines.

    In the 1920s, Mongolia reportedly had 110,000 monks, including children – one-third of the male population. More than 90 percent of Mongols embraced the Lamaist faith, census statistics show. But the campaign of repression, initiated in 1936 by Mongolia’s Communist leader Khorloogiin Choibalsan at the behest of Joseph Stalin, led to the destruction of all the temples except a handful kept as museums and the execution of thousands of monks.

    During the decades that followed, many Mongolians simply lost their religious traditions, said the deputy head of the Gandantegchinleng monastery, Vice Humble Lama Amgalan.

    “People were taught that religion is bad, and because of that many Mongolians had little faith and in fact viewed religion with suspicion,” he said over milk tea and dried yoghurt in the prayer room of his apartment in Ulaanbaatar. “But the transmission of Buddhist knowledge is coming back. We now have a lot of young monks and lay people who are knowledgeable about our religion.”

    There are now 3,000 students training to become monks in Mongolia.

    Much of the financial support for the rebuilding of monasteries, meanwhile, has come from Taiwan and other Buddhist countries in Asia.

    But the Dayan Derkh monastery was financed by the Tributary Fund, a not-for-profit organization in Montana that has sought to enlist Buddhist leaders in its effort to protect the taimen, the largest salmon in the world, which swims in the Uur River below the monastery. “The lamas bring an ancient cultural tie to nature protection that meets up with modern ecosystem concerns,” said David Gilroy, an American graduate student at the University of Wisconsin-Madison who has spent years in Mongolia studying the taimen. He also has worked closely with religious leaders here. “They are trying to regain an active community after 80 years of enforced atheism, and in their effort to do that they can partner with international groups to reconstruct what was lost in the 1930s.”

    The immediate future of the Dayan Derkh monastery, though, looks slightly less clear. A couple of months after Ragchaa brought his visitor into the reconstructed monastery, the 81-year-old caretaker died.

    Gilroy recalled Ragchaa’s contribution to the conservation efforts in an e-mail sent shortly after the old caretaker’s death. “He was the elderly man that consulted on much of the building of the Dayan Derkh monastery and who, in many publications and press interviews, was quoted for his personal memories of the original monastery and the lamas living and teaching there. … I know I will miss his wry sense of humor, his great ‘big fish’ stories, and his rare lack of inhibition to speak honestly about what he thought – maybe something that comes with age.”

     

    ASIA PACIFIC NEWS

    ULAANBAATAR, Mongolia: Buddhism was repressed in Mongolia for several decades under the Soviet-era where freedom of religion was severely curtailed. 

    But the religion has witnessed a revival in recent years. 

    In the Mongolian capital, Ulaanbaatar is one of the country’s most important Buddhist monasteries. 

    It is known as Gandantegchinlen, which means “the great place of complete joy.” 

    Built in 1838, it is now frequented by believers praying for good health, good luck, and even better business and marital prospects. 

    Mongolia is home to the Tibetan brand of Buddhism, and Ganden is one of the few monasteries to have survived the country’s recent turbulent history. 

    When the reign of the Manchus ended in 1911, Buddhism was a powerful religious and even economic and political force. 

    But under Soviet domination, nearly all of the country’s monasteries were wiped out, their properties seized, and countless monks sent to labour camps in Siberia. 

    In a land where Buddhism had often flourished, the religion came under severe persecution by the then Soviet Union from the 1930s through to the 1960s. 

    Even though the true extent and magnitude of the horrors can never be known, historians have, in recent years, uncovered numerous graveyards in which Buddhist monks had earlier been purged and executed. 

    The religion underwent a revival after the downfall of the Soviet Union, and many monasteries were either built or restored. 

    In 1992, freedom of religion was guaranteed in the constitution, and people started flocking back to monasteries. 

    One Mongolian said: “My grandfather and mother were devout Buddhists. When I was a child I would learn about Buddhism. So I believed in it since I was very young.” 

    Another Mongolian said: “It’s a Mongolian tradition to pray to our Gods and ask them to make our lives prosperous and happy.” 

    Gombusuren Dalantai, Ganden monastery senior monk, said: “Mongolia is one of the three main centres of Buddhism, the other two being India and Tibet. After 1990, believers began to donate money to rebuild the monasteries. We have some old monks who began teaching Buddhism to young people. There’s a lot of interest to revive Buddhism.” 

    But reviving the religion hasn’t been easy, given that two generations had grown up with little knowledge of Buddhism. 

    Most people have little understanding of the Buddhist rituals or their meanings, and well-educated Buddhist teachers are in short supply. 

    Some even argue that Buddhism as practiced in Mongolia is not authentic. 

    Gombusuren Dalantai added: “We send many young monks to India and Tibet and Sri Lanka. There they learn and spend four to seven years. Some of them stayed more than a decade. They come back to serve Ganden so how can they say it’s not authentic?” 

    The revival of Buddhism should hardly come as a surprise, given the central role of the religion in Mongolian history and culture. 

    Analysts even predict that the new dawn of Buddhism is likely to forge and mould a new culture and religious identity for the country. - CNA/de

    A Buddhist Revival in 21st Century China

    According to highly connected sources, the 76-year-old veteran communist is a frequent worshipper at Buddhist temples and shows a strong personal leaning towards the ancient religion, though it is unclear whether he would yet call himself a Buddhist.

    This places Mr Jiang among a growing number of Chinese - some say 100million of the country’s 1.3billion people - who show some affiliation with Buddhism, a religion introduced from India nearly 2000 years ago. 

    The signs are everywhere. Temples are being restored and reopened, and people come to burn incense and say prayers before Buddha images. More young people are shaving their heads and donning the yellow or grey robes of monks and nuns.

    At the Badachu complex of temples near Beijing’s Western Hills, a woman prostrates herself before a pagoda housing a relic said to be a tooth of the original Buddha, Gautama or Sakyamuni, and circles the building with tears in her eyes. A former forestry professor from Harbin, she felt gripped by belief in 1994 and has since given up her academic career and her marriage in her effort to renounce worldly concerns.

    “I haven’t yet succeeded, and I feel guilty about it,” she said. “So I am here to ask the Buddha to forgive me. If there are 10 degrees of Buddhist achievements, I think I am only at level two.”

    Most followers do not go as far as forsaking worldly comforts. In Beijing’s “dirt market”, where small traders bring old and new artefacts for sale, small statues of the Buddha are among the most popular items - bought for use in home shrines by members of China’s new middle class with cash to spare and thoughts lifting above the struggle for a living.

    The revival is being quietly encouraged by the authorities, at the same time as they crack down on religious or mystical trends seen as potentially subversive of their monopoly on power.

    At a military-run hotel in Beijing, about 400 abbots, monks and lay Buddhists were meeting for an occasional national convention of the Buddhist Association of China, one of the five officially sanctioned organisations (including for Catholicism, other branches of Christianity, Islam and indigenous Daoism) through which Beijing permits and controls religious activity.

    “The Government’s attitude towards Buddhism is more tolerant,” said the scholar. “This is partly because it is so closely incorporated into Chinese culture - in everything from architecture to language - it is inseparable.

    People were coming to Buddhism for all kinds of reasons.

    “Some have made lots of money, sometimes in nasty ways, since the reforms and they come to the temple for redemption,” the scholar said. “Some high-ranking officials feel insecure, and they want to seek a divine patron.”

    The scholar was not sure whether Former President Jiang’s attendance at temples meant a philosophical commitment to the supreme “dharma”, the supreme spiritual law, or a change in life-long political practices. “A person’s life is multi-faceted,” he said.

     

     

    Under the able guidance of Ven. Dr. D. Rewatha Thero, Present General Secretary of the Maha Bodhi Society of India, Buddhagaya centre is extending a commendable service to the Society and the Buddhist community around the globe.
     
    Today the Centre is extending the following activities:-

    • Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Temple
    • A pilgrims guest house with all facilities
    • A small Shrine Room for pilgrims and Visitors.
    • Communication Facilities

     

    Free Homeopathic Dispensary:
    Founded by Lt. Ven. Bulath Singhala Pannarama Thero , the dispensary looks after the needs of the local and needy people by giving them free medicines and treatment. A team of dedicated doctors and staff help in maintaining the proper functioning of the Dispensary.

    A free School for Children :
    The Maha Bodhi Vidyapeeth is a free school which is dedicated in giving the gift of Knowledge to the needy and less fortunate children of the locality. It has a strength of about 450 students and is still growing in numbers. The Centre believes that the child who attaings education can an asset to the Society.

    An Ambulance Service:
    Started in 1997, the Ambulance service is serving the community by taking the sick peo;oe to hospitals at a minimum cost so that the service is inexpensive and easy to use by less fortunate ,ambulance service the Buddhagaya Centre of the Maha Bodhi Society of India is one of the first to reach the spot of any natural calamity of disaster.

    Free Educational Sponsorship for the Handicap:
    The Buddhagaya Centre also provides free sponsorship to the deserving candidates who are physically handicap children and is presently sponsoring few such deserving candidates.
     

    • A tiny canteen to serve the pilgrims residing in the guest house.
    • A Book Shop.
    • A Meditation Hall.
    • Monastic Training Centre for novices.

    Sherab\


    Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India

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    Entrance gate to the Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

    IND02_DSC_3511

    Statue of Anagarika Dharmapala founder of Mahabodhi Society

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    Statue of Anagarika Dharmapala founder of Mahabodhi Society

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    Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

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    Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

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    May you all be happy with the blessing of Triple Gem, The Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.

    IND02_DSC_3517

    Group of pilgrims taking picture behind Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

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    Buddha first teachings in Sarnath

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    Buddha’s first Disciples

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    Golden Buddha statue at the altar, Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

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    Golden Buddha statue at the altar, Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

    IND02_DSC_3573

    Pregnant Maya, Buddha’s mother mural painting at Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

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    Birth of Buddha in Lumbini, mural painting at Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

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    Wiseman meeting newborn Buddha prophesying His future, mural painting at Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

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    Fasting Buddha and Sujata offering a bowl with milk and rice,  mural painting at Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

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    Meditating Buddha under Bodhi tree in Bodhgaya with group of demons trying to disturb, mural painting at Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

    IND02_DSC_3637

    Group of disturbing demons, mural painting at Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

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    Disturbing demon, mural painting at Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

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    Buddha’s first teaching in Sarnath, mural painting at Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

    IND02_DSC_3592

    Buddha with disciples meeting with old king, mural painting at Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

    IND02_DSC_3643

    Buddhist monk collecting alms, mural painting at Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

    IND02_DSC_3638

    Buddha Parinibbana in Kushinara, mural painting at Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

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    Buddha Parinibbana in Kushinara, mural painting at Mulagandha Kuti Vihar of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath

    IND02_DSC_3666

    Buddhist colorful prayer flag with Wheel of Dhamma

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    Buddhist swastika

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    Bell of Dhamma founded by Tarthang Rinpoche

    IND02_DSC_3536

    Replica of Ashoka column

    WELCOME TO MAHABODHI SOCIETY, BANGALORE

    Maha Bodhi Society, Bangalore, is a charitable Organization established in 1956 by Venerable Acharya Buddharakkhita with the main objective of reviving the compassionate teachings of the Buddha in the land of its origin, India and to put into practice the precious teachings of the Buddha through selfless service programs. 

    Maha Bodhi society Bangalore is dedicated for the welfare and happiness of people irrespective of religion, race, color or sex. Since its very inception the Society has been actively engaged in rendering various spiritual and humanitarian services. Today, under the guidance and leadership of Venerable Acharya Buddharakkhita, the Society has expanded its activities in different parts of India and abroad with the message of compassion. The society has established monasteries for monks and nuns, Hospitals, Meditation centers, educational institutions and published over a hundred Dhamma books benefiting thousands of people around the globe. 

    The Maha Bodhi Society celebrated its Golden Jubilee in 2006 and in commemoration of 50th year of service, the Society has taken another leap by starting The Mahabodhi Academy for Pali & Buddhist Studies which will be upgraded as Lord Buddha University of Pali and Theravada Buddhism.

    Mahabodhi Society is a charitable organization established in 1956 by Most Venerable Acharya Buddharakkhita with sole objective of reviving the precious teachings of the Buddha in the land of its origin, India. Mahabodhi society Bangalore is dedicated for the welfare and happiness of people irrespective of religion, race, color or sex. Since its very inception the Society has been actively engaged in rendering various spiritual and humanitarian services. Today, with the able guidance and leadership of Venerable Acharya Buddharakkhita, the Society has expanded its activities in different parts of India and Abroad with the message of compassion. The society has established monasteries for monks and nuns, Hospitals, Meditation centers, Educational institutions and published about a hundred Dhamma books benefiting thousands of people around the globe. 

    The Mahabodhi Society celebrated its Golden Jubilee on 13th May, 2006 and in commemoration of 50th year of service, the Society has taken another leap by starting The Mahabodhi Academy for Pali & Buddhist Studies which will be upgraded as Mahabodhi Buddhist Open university. It is a distant education scheme conducting correspondence courses on Dhamma, the first of its kind in India.

    Buddhism with its culture based on compassion and peace saw its golden era at the time of Emperor Ashoka. But by 12th Century A.D it began to decline and inimical forces actively worked for its disappearance. Many centuries later the Venerable Anagarika Dharmapala undertook the stupendous task of revival of Buddhism and Buddhist culture. 

    In 1891 he initiated a movement for revival through the Maha Bodhi Society. With branches set up in many parts of the world, the Society continues its noble work “for the good of many, for the benefit of the many”. He was born in Colombo in 1864 and passed away in 1933. 

    Then in 1956 Venerable Acharya Buddharakkhita, a Buddhist monk with profound knowledge and experience about the teachings of the Buddha founded Maha Bodhi Society, Bangalore. This is the premier Buddhist Institution in the whole of South India. Seeing the urgent need for training good monks, he established the Mahabodhi Sangharama, which has trained many monks from all over the world, who are continuing their effort to serve the cause of Buddha Dhamma, particularly in the land of its origin, India.

    50 long years have passed rendering manifold spiritual and humanitarian services both in India and abroad as well as giving dhamma discourses and conducting meditation courses, running educational institutions and medical centers, publishing books, monthly magazines etc

    Address: 14 Kalidasa Road Gandhinagar, Bangalore Karnataka 560009 India 
    Phone: 91-80-22250684 
    Fax: 91-80-22264438 
    EMail: info@mahabodhi.info 
    Website: http://www.mahabodhi.info/

    Buddhachannel needs donations

    Lok Sabha adopts Nalanda University BillNalanda University Bill 2010 approved by Cabinet

    The Lok Sabha on Thursday adopted the Nalanda University Bill, 2010, which has already been approved by the Rajya Sabha, to set up a Rs.1,005-crore international university at Nalanda in Bihar, where a varsity for Buddhist learning existed over 800 years ago.

    Replying to the debate, Minister of State for External Affairs Preneet Kaur said the Ministry had taken upon itself to establishing the university because it was an international effort by the East Asian Summit comprising 15 countries. The Union government would provide land for the university, which would be established through voluntary funding from the East Asian Summit members.

    Singapore had announced funding of $ 4 million - $5 million for the Nalanda university’s library through private donations .

    Ms. Kaur said the Bill provided only a framework and structure for the university and that further constitution of the institution and its rules and regulations would be done later. In the beginning, the university would have six schools for different studies, but the Board of governors had envisaged opening another school for information technology.

    According to the Bill, the university aimed at contributing to the promotion of regional peace and vision by bringing together the future leaders of East Asia who by relating to their past could enhance their understanding of each other’s perspectives and share that understanding globally.

    The Nalanda Mentor Group, chaired by Professor Amartya Sen, will draft the statutes for the university. It will have schools of Buddhist Studies;

    Philosophy and Comparative Religions;

    Historical Studies;

    International Relations and Peace Studies;

    Business Management in relation to Public Policy and Development Studies;

     Languages and Literature;

     and Ecology and Environmental Studies.

     Till such time the varsity becomes sustainable on its own, it will function as a public-private partnership. The Bihar government has acquired 500 acres of land in Rajgir, near the original Nalanda University site

    comments (0)
    08/26/10
    Buddhist Revival-PART III-WISDOM IS POWER-Buddhist Revival-PART III-26-08-2010-LESSON – 11 -26810 Free Online e-Nālandā University-Awakened One Shows the Path to Attain Ultimate Bliss-Anyone Can Attain Ultimate Bliss Just Visit:http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org-Revival of the Bhikkhuni Order in Sri Lanka-How Thosamling is different from other nunneries.-Revival of Buddhism and theosophists-The White Buddhist: Henry Steel Olcott and the Sinhalese Buddhist Revival
    Filed under: General
    Posted by: site admin @ 12:18 am

    Buddhist Revival-PART III

    WISDOM IS POWER

    EDUCATE(BUDDHA)!    MEDITATE(DHAMMA)! ORGANISE(SANGHA)!

    26-08-2010

    LESSON – 11

    26810 Free Online e-Nālandā University

    Awakened One Shows the Path to Attain Ultimate Bliss

    Anyone Can Attain Ultimate Bliss

    Just Visit:

    http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org

     

    COMPUTER IS AN ENTERTAINMENT INSTRUMENT!

    INTERNET!

    IS

    ENTERTAINMENT NET!

    TO BE MOST APPROPRIATE!

    Using such an instrument

    The Free e-Nālandā University has been re-organized to function through the following Schools of Learning :

    Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath scientific thought in

    mathematics,

    astronomy,

    alchemy,

    and

    anatomy

    Buddha Taught his Dhamma Free of cost, hence the Free- e-Nālandā follows suit

    As the Original Nālandā University did not offer any Degree, so also the Free  e-Nālandā University.

    Main Course Programs:

    I.
    KAMMA

    REBIRTH

    AWAKEN-NESS 

    BUDDHA

    THUS COME ONE

    DHARMA

    II.
    ARHAT

    FOUR HOLY TRUTHS

    EIGHTFOLD PATH

    TWELVEFOLD CONDITIONED ARISING

    BODHISATTVA

    PARAMITA

    SIX PARAMITAS

    III.

    SIX SPIRITUAL POWERS

    SIX PATHS OF REBIRTH

    TEN DHARMA REALMS

    FIVE SKANDHAS

    EIGHTEEN REALMS

    FIVE MORAL PRECEPTS

    IV.

    MEDITATION

    MINDFULNESS

    FOUR APPLICATIONS OF MINDFULNESS

    LOTUS POSTURE

    SAMADHI

    CHAN SCHOOL

    FOUR DHYANAS

    FOUR FORMLESS REALMS

    V.

    FIVE TYPES OF BUDDHIST STUDY AND PRACTICE

    MAHAYANA AND HINAYANA COMPARED

    PURE LAND

    BUDDHA RECITATION

    EIGHT CONSCIOUSNESSES

    ONE HUNDRED DHARMAS

    EMPTINESS

    VI.

    DEMON

    LINEAGE

    with

    Level I: Introduction to Buddhism

    Level II: Buddhist Studies

    TO ATTAIN

    Level III: Stream-Enterer

    Level IV: Once - Returner

    Level V: Non-Returner
    Level VI: Arhat

    Welcome to the Free Online e-Nālandā University

    http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/nunorder.htm

    Buddhism and Women\

    Revival of the Bhikkhuni Order in Sri Lanka

    It is well known that the Bhikkhuni (nuns) order was introduced to Sri Lanka during the reign of King Devanampiyatissa. (BC 250 - 210) Since then this order flourished at Anuradhapura for about 1200 years. With the fall of Anuradhapura to the Cholian invaders in AD 1017 and the annexation of the Aunradhapura Kingdom to the Cholian empire the Bhikkhuni order disappeared and became defunct. The Order of Monks (Bhikkhus) also met the same fate. But was later revived after King Vijayabahu drove away the Cholian invaders. For this revival the King had to get down monks from Burma. But there were no nuns in Burma, Siam, Cambodia or Laos the other four Theravada countries. Hence the monks maintained that the Bhikkhuni order should be considered defunct and not restorable. During the time the Bhikkhuni order existed in Sri Lanka it proved to be an asset to the religion and rendered yeoman service to the Sasana. Details can be found in the Dipawansa on which was modelled the Mahavamsa - the great chronicle in Sinhala history.

    After 50 years of Cholian rule, King Vijayabahu coming up from Ruhuna expelled the invaders and assumed rulership over the whole island. He shifted his capital to Polonnaruwa. During the Polonnaruwa period which followed Sinhalese Buddhism came more and more under Tamil, Hindu influence. The Tamil caste system of South India was adopted and the monks took the names of their villages as a prefix to their Pali names given at ordination. The Sangha became the preserve of one caste monopolising the temporalities in imitation of Hindu priesthood. The study of Sanskrit and secular sciences associated with it came into vogue. Anti-feminism and casteism were features entrenched in the Manu laws of Hinduism.

    Anathema

    These features found their way to Sinhalese society and its religion. Therefore, in this milieu the revival of the defunct Bhikkhuni order became anathema to Sinhalese Buddhism. There is permission in the Vinaya Chullavagga for monks to ordain nuns. This permission could easily have been made use of if the monks were willing to restore the Bhikkhuni order. But since their wishes were otherwise and they were more interested in maintaining their monopolies, it suited to take the casteist and anti feminist line. They enabled them to avert rivalry from low caste men in the Sangha and women in to Bhikkhuni order.

    Therefore, from the Polonnaruwa period right up to the British conquest of the island in 1815 no one took up the issue of admitting ‘low caste’ men to the Sangha and women to the Bhikkhuni order. Priestcraft saw to it that the Buddhist Sangha was the preserve of the high-caste and that women were debarred from leading the holy life of a Bhikkhuni as advocated by the Buddha. The majority of people were ignorant and illiterate. They took their Buddhism from the priestcraft of the Sangha and the Kings who took their advise in matters of religion from the Sangha hierarchy.

    Thus, a tradition to the effect that the Bhikkhuni order is defunct and cannot be restored until the appearance of Martie Buddha in a future aeon became accepted. Thereby the teachings of the Buddha on appamada (diligence), samanatmata (egalitarianism), Karuna, Metta, Artachariya etc were lost sight of. An anti-feminist dogma prevented women from taking to holy orders in Buddhism. This was the situation from the Polonnaruwa period right up to the time the Sangha - King combine lost their control of the nation in 1815 with the betrayal of the last King to the British.

    During the colonial period, under British rule, it was Anagarika Dharmapala who was the pioneer of the Buddhist revival. He opened the first nunnery in modern Ceylon at Darley Lane, Colombo. It was not a success. He was followed by Miss Catherine de Alwis who went to Burma and got ordained there as a Junior Nun without Higher Ordination. She came back to Sri Lanka in 1903 and founded the Dasa Sil Mata order of Buddhist nuns. Thus from 1903 onwards these D.S.M nuns were the vestige and the representatives of the Bhikkhuni Sangha of old. They seemed to believe in the theory that half a loaf is better than no bread. Therefore they had to be satisfied with observing the ten precepts of Junior Nuns or Samaneris.

    Many Buddhist leaders among the clergy and the laity realised that the DSM status for nuns was really incongruous and incompatible with the Buddha’s concept of a four-fold division among his disciples and devotees.

    He recognised only Bhikkhus, Bhikkhunis, male lay devotees and female lay devotees. There is no room for a half way house between lay women devotee and Bhikkhunis such as a Dasa Sil Matas. The later term is an invention by apostates in the Sasana who wish to keep down women renunciates from their proper place as Bhikkhunis.

    Among the advocates for the revival of the Bhikkhuni order was Ven. Pandit Narawala Dhammaratana Thero. He had led a delegation to a peace conference in Peking, China. He studied the Bhikkhuni order in China and found that it had been established on a firm Vinaya footing by Sinhalese nuns from Anuradhapura in AD 429.

    Chinese nuns

    Therefore, in his writings and teachings he advocated the revival of the Bhikkhuni Order with assistance from Chinese Nuns. Other advocates of the revival among our Maha Theras were Ven. Pandit Hedipannala Pannaloka of the Vijalankara Pirivena, Ven. Pandit Henpitagedera Gnanaseeha, Ven. Banbarende Seevali and several other progressives. Among lay Buddhist leaders, Anagarika Dharmapala, Sir D.B. Jayatillaka, H. Sri Nissanka, Dr. G.P. Malalasekera, J.R. Jayewardene and many others encouraged the movement and spoke for it. Among the living sympathizers and advocates were Ven. Mapalagama Vipulasara. Principal, Paramadhamma Chetiya Pirivena, Ven. Pandit Inamaluwe Sumangala of the Dambulla Raja Maha Viharaya, Ven. Talalle Dhammaloka, Anunayaka Thero of the Amarapura Sect, Ven Dr. Kirinde Dhammananda, Ven. Pandit Pathegama Gnanarama retired Principal Sudharmakara Pirivena, Panadura, Ven. Porawagama Soma, Ven. Deegala Mahinda, Tembiliyane Ariyadhamma etc.

    While the progressive monks called for and advocated the revival there were reactionaries, conservatives and obscurantists who took the traditional stand in Sinhalese Buddhism as a dogma, equating it with ‘pure Theravada Buddhism’. Thus there was division of opinion in the two camps, the conservatives sticking to traditional anti-feminism and the progressives calling for a revision of the traditional stand and a restoration of the Bhikkhuni Order.

    As a sequel to the public interest created on this question Ven. M. Vipulasara, Principal, Parama Dhamma Chetiya Pirivena and President Mahabodhi Society came forward with the assistance of the World Sangha Council and Sakyadhita International Organisation of Buddhist Women and held an ordination ceremony on 8.12.96 at Saranath Temple, India. This was a grand and historic ceremony - a red letter day in the annals of Theravada Buddhism. At this ceremony 11 selected Sinhalese DSM nuns were ordained fully as Bhikkhunis by a team of Theravada monks in concert with a quorum of Korean Nuns. Thus for the first time after 980 odd years the Theravada Bhikkhuni Order was revived in India.

    Sasanodaya Society

    For the first time since the disappearance, the Bhikkhuni Order was restored at Saranath India on 8.12.96. The Sinhalese Nuns who received their Bhikkhuni Ordination there came back to Sri Lanka after one year and two months at the invitation of the Bhikkhuni Sasanodaya Society, Dambulla. On Medin Poya Day (12/3/98) they ordained 23 selected Sinhalese DSM Nuns into the Bhikkhuni Sangha.

    This ordination was confirmed and ratified by a quorum of the Theravada Sangha as required in the Vinaya. Ven. Inamaluwe was the director of the function and the master of ceremonies. He was assisted by Ven. Mapalagama Vipulasara, Galkadawela Punnasara, Pandit Tallalle Dhammananda Anu Nayakam, Ven. Prof. K. Vajira and Porwagama Soma and a few others.

    Thus for the first time since the Anuradhapura days the Bhikkhuni Sasana has been revived in Sri Lanka According to full Theravada ceremonial. Sinhalese DSM nuns, Buddhist women feminists and other advocates of the restoration of the Bhikkhuni Sasana will have the satisfaction that one of their cherished dreams for the Buddha Sasana has been realised.

    Sri Lanka became the caretaker and headquarters of Theravada Buddhism since it was expelled from India. Other Theravada countries such as Siam, Burma, Laos, and Cambodia has never had a Bhikkhuni Order. There are movements in these countries for the admission of women to the Bhikkhuni Sangha in the Theravada tradition to which they belong. These countries border China and they see that in China Bhikkhunis have been existing from the earliest days of the introduction of Buddhism to that land.

    Hence, their aspiration for entry to the Bhikkhuni Sangha will receive a fillip on hearing and seeing that the Theravada Bhikkhuni Order has been established in Sri Lanka. Though the Bhikkhuni Order had never been introduced to any country except Sri Lanka, Burma is an unusual exception. It had originally been a Mahayana country. Therefore during the Mahayana days there were Bhikkhunis in Burma. But once it was converted to Theravada Buddhism the Bhikkhuni Order there became unrecognised. Hence there continued to be the nuns with only Samaneri Ordination under the Ten Precepts. Even today the position is the same. It is from these Samaneri nuns (called Ma-Theelas) that Sri Lanka received its DSM order of nuns.

    Now that the Theravada Bhikkhuni Order has been established in Sri Lanka it should be a matter of time for women renunciates in these countries to come to Sri Lanka, or get down Sri Lankan nuns to their countries and establish the Bhikkhuni Order in their lands. Admittance to the Bhikkhuni Order to women was granted by the Buddha himself. Womens’ rights are a part of human rights in the modern world.

    Therefore, the Bhikkhuni Order in Sri Lanka should be the spearhead for the movement to establish the Theravada Bhikkhuni Order in these lands. The Bhikkhuni Order cannot function properly in poor and backward cultures which do not recognise women’s rights. That is why even in some backward Mahayana countries such as Mongolia, Kirghizia and Tibet there never has been a Bhikkhuni Order. Now that Sri Lanka is emerging from a backward Third World country with a poor record of human rights to a modern democracy which recognises women’s rights the prospects of the Bhikkhuni Order gaining its rightful place as in the Anuradhapura period are bright and full of promise.

    D. Amarasiri Weeraratne.

    From :”The Island” Newspaper Colombo, Sri Lanka  (4th April, 1998)

    http://www.thosamling.com/nuns

    How Thosamling is different from other nunneries.

     

    Thosamling Nunnery

    Thosamling is one of the few places in the world where nuns from a variety of international backgrounds live together. Rather than belonging to the culture of a particular country, our nuns are asked to develop their own unique community culture. At Thosamling we have had nuns from Holland, Greece, Venezuela, England, Japan, Germany, Philippines, USA, Taiwan, Korea, Vietnam, Singapore, Malaysia, and Australia. Nuns in Thosamling have free board and lodging. After His Holiness the Dalai Lama’s  visit in  May 2009, His Holiness is recommending newly ordained nuns without a home nunnery to start their sangha commitment at Thosamling. 

    We are a non-sectarian Nunnery

    Thosamling is a nunnery where all four Tibetan Buddhist Lineages are respected and represented in our practice and study. Non-sectarian practitioners develop proficiency in one of the schools of Kagyu, Nyingma, Sakya or Geluk and then enhance their spiritual practice by seeking out and developing knowledge from the other schools. The various practices and lineages are not diluted or mixed. Rather, this non sectarian approach is recognition of the profoundness of each lineage and tradition. 

    Our resident Lama Geshe Tsewang Nyima

    Geshe Tsewang Nyima became a Lharampa Geshe in 1980. He was then assigned to Ki Monastery in Spiti by HH Dalai Lama. Here he implemented and taught both modern teaching programs for junior monks and traditional philosophy programs for senior monks and the lay community. 

    After ten years in Spiti, Geshe-la was requested to assist Drolmaling Nunnery to establish a traditional 12-year Dharma study programme. Two years later he taught Dharma to young Tibetan students in the Norbulingka Institute, as requested by the Department of Preservation of Tibetan Culture. During this time Geshe-la began to research and compile a Vinaya dictionary and he is recognized by his peers as an expert in this area.

    As Geshe-la watched Thosamling being built, his interest has been always with us. He offered his teachings to the nuns and residents of Thosamling on a regular basis. Since 2007 Geshe Tsewang Nyima has set up and taught the philosophy program at Thosamling. He also kindly advises the nuns’ community and individuals as requested. With Geshe-la living amongst us we are extremely happy to receive so much support, so many teachings, and ongoing guidance from him. 

    Our Location

    Our location, near Dharamsala, India, in the quiet fields at the foot of the spectacular Dhauladar Range places us close to significant teachers from all four Buddhist lineages, including His Holiness the Dalai Lama, His Holiness Gyalwa Karmapa, Khamtrul Rinpoche, Tai Situ Rinpoche and Dzongsar Khyentse Rinpoche to name a few. To whatever Buddhist tradition you consider yourself to belong, you will be close to significant teachers. 

    Joining our community may also offer you a unique opportunity. Besides the Tibetan Language courses, there is the Buddhist Philosophy course which will train you in the debating skills so common in the Tibetan Buddhist Tradition. Without a good understanding of debate it is hard to explore the depths of Tibetan Buddhist Philosophy. It is therefore a must to learn how to debate. In May 2009, for the first time in Tibetan language, non-Tibetan nuns offered the traditional debate to His Holiness the Dalai Lama. These nuns, Venezuelan nun Ani Kunsang and Korean nun Ani Chonye from Thosamling debated in Tibetan for His Holiness. 

    Our Living Conditions

    The living conditions for nuns at Thosamling are simple and comfortable. We understand that for new nuns it takes time to adjust to communal living and for this reason a nun joining our community is provided with her own, single room.
    Although nuns at Thosamling are accommodated within their own building and eat their meals with Geshe-la in the sangha dining room, they share the other communal areas of the nunnery with laywomen. There are also male students living off site who participate in the various programs.

    Our Study Program

    We understand that the idea of signing up for a 12-20 year traditional study program could be overwhelming. At the same time we recognize that a solid foundation in study is essential to sustaining practice and progressing along the path. Thosamling offers:

    Fundamentals of Debate – Providing an introduction to Tibetan Buddhist logic and reasoning .
    Tibetan Language Program – Providing a range of opportunities to access Dharma in its original language and to learn to understand teaching from our precious Tibetan teachers firsthand without the need of a translator.
    Philosophy Study Program – Providing nuns with Tibetan language and debate skills and the opportunity to study traditional Tibetan Monastic texts in a rare and intimate environment.
    Lam Rim Class – Providing teachings for a general audience, including a broad range of students from outside Thosamling. Geshe-la currently is leading students through Shantideva’s Bodhisattvacharyavatara. 

    The first year introduction to debate and the Lam Rim class, while taught in Tibetan, also includes English translation.

    Whether nuns are looking for a solid grounding to sustain their own further practice or for the tools they need to enter a Tibetan Nunnery’s study program, Thosamling can provide an excellent place to start.

    In 2010, due to the kindness of our sponsors, nuns will be able to join our Dharma classes free of charge. Nuns will also be able to study our Tibetan Language Course and have their deposit (equal to 50% of the course fees) fully refunded to them on successful completion of the course.
    Please see information about our different study programs under either the Tibetan Language Program or Philosophy Study Program. 

    Retreats at Thosamling

    Thosamling is an excellent place to do retreat.  We always keep rooms available for this purpose.  For more information about what is required in time commitments etc. and the help we can offer you, please email:thosamling@gmail.com 

    Our Training Program

    Because being a nun requires a unique set of knowledge and skills, Thosamling is planning training for new nuns to learn a variety of practices. This training program will be taught by Geshe Tsewang Nyima, senior and experienced nuns at Thosamling, and a variety of visiting Sangha members. 

    Thinking of Visiting or Joining Thosamling?

    For more information about what is required in terms of time commitment, practices, and your contribution to the nunnery, please email:
    thosamling@gmail.com  

     

    http://www.dailynews.lk/2010/02/18/fea01.asp

      Daily News Online

    Olcott Day was yesterday:

    Revival of Buddhism and theosophists

    Prof. C.V. Agarwal Theosophical Society, Adyar, Chennai

    Sri Lanka has been a leading Buddhist country. It is not quite correct to speak of the decline of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. The invaders tried to vanquish it by subjugating this peace-loving land which did not believe in the rule of the arms. All our attempts were made over very many years to prevent the noble tenets from spreading in the land.


    Colonel H.S. Olcott

    The famous debate proceedings at Panadura led by Ven. Mohottiwatte Gunananda were published in the Ceylon Times, later named the Times of Ceylon. Later a books was brought out on the debate which fell in the hands of Colonel H.S. Olcott, the President Founder of the Theosophical Society, in America. He and Madam H.P. Blavatsky, (H.P.B.) The co-founder both of whom had declared themselves Buddhists although they had not taken Panchasila as there was none in America to administer it.

    Colonel Olcott sent a copy ‘Isis Unveiled’ written by H.P.B. to Ven. Gunananda who opened correspondence with Col. Olcott and started quoting from the book in his powerful lectures. Distressed at the plight of the Buddhists, Col. Olcott and H.P.B. arrived in Galle on May 17 1880 and were received by a large crowd led by the leading monks. They took Panchasila at Vijayananda Vihara at Galle.

    Three-pronged strategy

    After discussions with the Venerable monks and assessing the situation Col. Olcott devised a three-pronged strategy to arrest the prevailing decadence, namely, Buddhist education, well-planned propaganda and sound organization.

    He was distressed at the practices enforced on faithful Buddhists, such as baptizing the child in Church (Anagarika Dharmapala was given the name Don David), Solemnizing the Buddhist Marriages by a Church Ceremony, Christian oath to be taken in the court, not to speak of cutting of Bo Trees, no holidays on Buddhist festivals like the Vesak Full Moon Day and so on and on.

    There were only two Buddhist schools as against 805 run by Christian missionaries. So no wonder the educated citizens were turning against the noble Dhamma.

    Col. Olcott started strenuous lecture tours, accompanied by young Dharmapala as translator, reviving in the minds of the people the glory and the magnificence of their Dhamma and started a series of Buddhist schools for which he had to bring theosophists from the West. At the time of his death in 1907 the number of the schools rose to nearly 300. A noteworthy point is that none of his schools were named Olcott School.

    This is one of the examples of his self effacing character which needs to be emulated by others, giving credits to the youngsters and encouraging them. Details of many contributions by Olcott, duly authenticated are given in the book ‘Buddhist and Theosophical Movements’ published by the Mahabodhi Society of India Saranath.

    Forging unity

    Col Olcott did memorable service by forging unity not only within Theravadians but also with Mahayana Tradition as is evidenced by leaders of all the schools signing ‘Fourteen Fundamental Buddhist Beliefs.’ Col. Olcott is the only non ordained monk given the authority by high priests led by Ven. Sumangala Nayaka Thera to “Accept and Register as Buddhist Persons of any nation who may make to him application, to administer to them the ‘Three Refugees and Five Precepts.’ Col. Olcott had an invitation sent to Buddhists to send a representative to the World.

    Parliament of Religions, Chicago in 1893 for which purpose the Theosophists paid fare, provided hospitality and all facilities to the 29-year Anagarika Dharmapala who led the so-called revival of Buddhism in India and elsewhere.

    Out of very many remarkable contributions, two need special mention.

    One is the ‘Buddhist Chatechism’ giving in brief the essential tenets suitable for youngsters and the Buddhist flag symbol of unity now adopted world over.

    Dharmapala continued to appreciate the worth and value of Col. Olcott’s advice, as is evident from a letter he wrote on May 20, 1922 to the principal of the Mahabodhi College, Colombo. Lamenting that the advice of Colonel Olcott given forty years earlier to bring out a series of Buddhist readers had not been acted upon and urging that the books be brought at the earliest.

    Unique distinction

    In recognition of the invaluable and selfless services rendered by Colonel Olcott to the cause of Buddhism, education and the Theosophical Society of Sri Lanka, the Parliament of Sri Lanka conferred on him the unique distinction of naming him as one of the heroes of Sri Lanka.

    He is the only foreigner on the role of national heroes. Not only this, on February 17, 1967 the 60th Anniversary of Colonel Olcott’s passing away, a life size statue of him was erected at Norris Road, Colombo, which was renamed Olcott Mawatha. Another statue of Colonel Olcott was erected by the Cultural Department at Galle, where he and Madam Blavatsky accepted the five precepts in 1880.

    A stamp was issued on December 9, 1967 in honour of Colonel Olcott, to mark the 60th Anniversary of his passing away by Dudley Senanayake, the then Prime Minister of Sri Lanka, paying tribute to Colonel Olcott on that occasion said, “At a time when Buddhism was on the wane in Ceylon, Colonel Henry Steele Olcott came to Ceylon in May 1880 and awakened its people to fight to regain their Buddhist heritage…. Colonel Olcott can be considered one of the heroes in the struggle of our independence and a pioneer of the present religious, national and cultural revival. Colonel Olcott’s visit to this country is a landmark in the history of Buddhism in Ceylon.”

    Then Prime Minister R Premadasa, wrote in June 1, 1978. “The Buddhist Theosophical Society was the focal point of this movement against injustice and discrimination. With the assistance of Madam Blavatsky, and especially Colonel. H.S. Olcott, the Buddhists set up a newspaper, ‘Sarasavi Sandares,’ a Buddhist Publicity Fund and a Buddhist Educational Fund.

    The Theosophical Society had many successes in these fields. They agitated on behalf of the Buddhists and won many concessions, such as the declaration of Vesak Day as a public holiday.

    Prevention of cutting down of Bo Trees and celebrating Buddhist festivals.

    In the fields of Education especially, they were very successful. The Theosophists were able to obtain the service of dedicated teachers like Leadbeater, Bowes Daley, Mary Musaeus Higgins and F.L. Woodward who built up prominent Buddhist educational institutions such as Ananda, Nalanda, Mahinda, Dharmaraja and Dharmashoka.

    They were assisted by a band of local helpers drawn from both the Buddhist clergy and laity, outstanding among them were Ven. Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Nayaka Thera, Anagarika Dharmapala and Sir Baron Jayathileke.”

    In a message dated March 26, 1980 J.R. Jayewardene, the then President of Sri Lanka, wrote as the awakener of a nation out of a long slumber, as the crusader who campaigned to regain its due place for Buddhism, as the agitator who caused the colonial government of the day to declare the Vesak Full Moon Day a statutory holiday in Sri Lanka (1885) as the designer of the now internationally famous Buddhist flag (1885) and as the founder of national and educational institutions like Ananda College, (1886) Colonel lives forever in our memories.”

    (This article was published in the Daily News a few years ago. The writer passed away recently in India)




    [ Profile of a hero]

    * Colonel Henry Steel Olcott

    * Born on August 2, 1832 in New Jersy

    * Served as an American military officer, journalist, lawyer

    * In 1875 formed the Theosophical Society

    * Arrived in Sri Lanka on May 16 1880

    * Pioneered setting up of Ananda College, Dharmaraja College, Maliyadeva College, and Mahinda College

    * Parliament recognized him as a national hero

    * Died on February 17, 1907

    Courtesy Wikipedia

    http://aryasangha.org/olcott-prothero.htmMadame Blavatsky and Henry Steel OlcottMadame Blavatsky and Rev. Sumangala

    postage stamp issued
in 1967 to commemorate Olcott

    The White Buddhist: Henry Steel Olcott and the Sinhalese Buddhist Revival

    By Stephen Prothero

    EACH YEAR on February 17, Buddhists throughout Sri Lanka light brass lamps and offer burning incense to commemorate the anniversary of the death of an American-born Buddhist hero. In Theravadan temples, saffron-robed monks bow down before his photograph, and boys and girls in schoolhouses across the country offer gifts in his memory. “May the merit we have gained by these good deeds,” they meditate, “pass on to Colonel Olcott, and may he gain happiness and peace.”

    Disinterested historians describe Henry Steel Olcott as the president-founder of the Theosophical Society, one of America’s first Buddhists, and an important contributor to both the Indian Renaissance in India and the Sinhalese Buddhist Revival in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). Less objective observers have allotted Olcott an even more central place in sacred history. A prime minister of Ceylon praised Olcott as “one of the heroes in the struggle for our independence and a pioneer of the present religious, national, and cultural revival.”

    In the land of his birth, Olcott has been less graciously received. The New York Times denounced him during his lifetime as “an unmitigated rascal”—”a man bereft of reason” whose “insanity, though harmless, is, unfortunately, incurable.” The Dictionary of American Biography, noting that Olcott has been considered “a fool, a knave, and a seer,” concludes that he was probably “a little of all three.”

    DESCENDED FROM Puritans, Henry Steel Olcott was born in 1832 into a pious Presbyterian household in Orange, New Jersey. After a short stint at what is now New York University, Olcott went west toward the frontier in search of youthful adventures. In Ohio, at the age of twenty, he became a convert to spiritualism. Soon he was championing a host of other causes, including antislavery, agricultural reform, women s rights, cremation, and temperance. He worked for a time as an experimental fanner, served a stint in the Army, and even worked as an investigator on the special commission charged with scrutinizing President Lincoln’s assassination. But he eventually returned to New York City, where he supported himself as a journalist and insurance lawyer. In 1874, while covering reports of spirits materializing at a farmhouse in Chittenden, Vermont, he struck up a friendship with Russian occultist Helena Petrovna Blavatsky. One year later, he and Blavatsky co-founded the Theosophical Society, an organization that would soon play a major role in introducing Americans to the ancient wisdom of the East.

    Madame Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott

    AFTER MOVING THEMSELVES and their society to India in 1879, Olcott and Blavatsky decided it was time to visit Ceylon. They arrived in Colombo on May 16, 1880. Apparently, their reputations had preceded them, since they received what Olcott later described as a royal welcome:

    A huge crowd awaited us and rent the air with their united shout of “Sadhu! Sadhu!” A white cloth was spread for us from the jetty steps to the road where carriages were ready, and a thousand flags were frantically waved in welcome.

    Shortly after this reception, on May 25, at the Wijananda Monastery in Galle, Olcott and Blavatsky each knelt before a huge image of the Buddha and “took pansil” by reciting in broken Pali the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts of Theravada Buddhism, thus becoming the first European-Americans to publicly and formally become lay Buddhists.

    Later Olcott underscored the difference between what he termed a “regular Buddhist” and “a debased modem Buddhist sectarian.” “If Buddhism contained a single dogma that we were compelled to accept, we would not have taken the pansil nor remained Buddhists ten minutes,” he explained. “Our Buddhism was that of the Master-Adept Gautama Buddha, which was identically the Wisdom Religion of the Aryan Upanishads, and the soul of all the ancient world-faiths.” Even on the day of his conversion to Buddhism, Olcott was discriminating between the “false” Buddhism of the Sinhalese people, which was in his view modem, debased, sectarian, and creedal, and his ostensibly true Buddhism —  ancient, pure, nonsectarian, and nondogmatic.

    DURING HIS FIRST visit to the island, Olcott founded seven lay branches and one monastic branch of the Buddhist Theosophical Society (BTS). He was explicit about modeling his Asian work after Christian examples: “As the Christians have their Society for the diffusion of Christian knowledge, so this should be a society for the diffusion of Buddhist knowledge.” Olcott also founded, again on Christian models, Buddhist secondary schools and Sunday schools affiliated with the BTS, thus initiating what would become a long and successful campaign for Western-style Buddhist education in Ceylon.

    Henry Steel Olcott and Rev. Sumangala

    Thanks to these efforts, Olcott and Blavatsky left Ceylon in July of 1880 as folk heroes. They had met a number of high-ranking monks, chief among them Hikkaduve Sumangala, who would soon become Olcott’s most faithful Sinhalese ally. Equally important, Olcott and Blavatsky had been embraced by a large number of Sinhalese laypeople.

    OLCOTT HAD PLANNED upon his arrival in India in 1879 to spend some time learning about Hinduism and Buddhism from Eastern experts, then to return to America, where he would devote the rest of his life to promoting Theosophy and building up the Theosophical Society. But the celebrity status that Olcott achieved during his first Ceylon tour led him to reevaluate his plans. Gradually he was coming to see himself more as a teacher than as a student. He was also coming to view India as his home. But perhaps most important, he was beginning to emerge from behind Blavatsky’s formidable shadow. Because the tour itself highlighted Olcott’s oratorical skills rather than Blavatsky’s parlor-room charisma, Olcott garnered as much influence, if not as much fame, as his traveling companion. Before their departure the Sinhalese people were praising Blavatsky, but they were also hailing Olcott as one of their own — “The White Buddhist.”

    OLCOTT SET SAIL for Ceylon in April 1881 for a second tour. Together with Mohottivatte Gunananda, the monk who had spearheaded the first phase of the Sinhalese Buddhist revival, he crisscrossed the western province for eight months in a bullock cart of his own design. Villagers flocked, according to Olcott, to witness the mechanical wonders of this device, complete with lockers for furniture and books, canvas roof to keep out rain, and cushioned central compartment with removable planks that could seat eight for dinner or sleep four. All testified to Olcotts Yankee ingenuity. When not impressing the Sinhalese with his cleverness and hard work, Olcott looked the part of the anti-Christian missionary. He sold merit cards and solicited subscriptions to support his National Education Fund, wrote and distributed anti-Christian and pro-Buddhist tracts, and secured support for his educational reforms from representatives of the island’s three monastic sects.

    Olcott remained disturbed by what he perceived as the shocking ignorance of the Sinhalese about Buddhism.” This was an odd sort of judgment for a recent convert who had purportedly come to Asia not to teach but to learn. It was, however, a judgment that Olcott shared with many nineteenth-century academic Orientalists. Like Olcott, pioneering Buddhologists such as Rhys Davids (whom Olcott eagerly read) tended to reduce the Buddhist tradition to what the Buddha did and what the Buddhist scriptures said. This tendency permitted them to praise the ancient wisdom of the East and to condemn its modern manifestations—to view Asian religious traditions much like Calvin viewed the human race: as fallen from some Edenic past. It was Olcott’s uncritical and unconscious appropriation of this aspect of academic Orientalism that led him to the rather absurd conclusion that Ceylon’s Buddhists knew little, if anything, about “real” Buddhism. Like his hated missionaries and his beloved Orientalists, Olcott assumed the right to define what Buddhism really was. Unlike them, however, he assumed the duty to stir the Sinhalese masses from their ignorance, to instill in them his own creole representation of their Buddhist faith.

    IN DEVISING HIS strategy for this didactic mission, Olcott turned yet again to the missionary example. He decided to compile for use in his Buddhist schools a catechism of basic Buddhist principles, “on the lines of the similar elementary handbooks so effectively used among Western Christian sects,” both Protestant and Catholic. Olcott’s The Buddhist Catechism, which would eventually go through more than forty editions and be translated into over twenty languages, is in many ways the defining document of his Buddhism. It first appeared, in both English and Sinhalese, on July 24, 1881. Hugely influential, it is still used today in Sri Lankan schools.

    While Olcott himself characterized his Catechism as an “antidote to Christianity,” a shocking reliance on that tradition was evident in its explicitly Christian questions:

    Q. Was the Buddha God?

    A. No. Buddha Dharma teaches no “divine” incarnation.

    Q. Do Buddhists accept the theory that everything has been formed out of nothing by a Creator?

    A. We do not believe in miracles; hence we deny creation, and cannot conceive of a creation of something out of nothing.

    Olcott’s ostensibly non-Christian Buddhism sounded like liberal Protestantism. More than an antidote to Christianity, Olcott’s Catechism was a borneopathic cure, treating the scourge of Christianity with a dose of the same. His critique of Christianity shared many elements with liberal Protestants’ critique of Christian orthodoxy, including a distrust of miracles, an emphasis on reason and experience. a tendency toward self-reliance, and a disdain for hell. Like their Jesus, his Buddha was a quintessential Christian gentleman: sweet and convincing, the very personification of “self-culture and universal love.

    RETURNING TO COLOMBO on July 18, 1882, for his third Ceylon tour. Olcott discovered that the Buddhist Theosophical Society was “lifeless” and the revival was ‘at a standstill.’ Of the 13,000 rupees that had been pledged to the National Education Fund, only 100 had been collected. More ominously, a contingent of Roman Catholic missionaries had converted a well near a Buddhist pilgrimage site into a Lourdes-like healing shrine. Olcott feared “a rush of ignorant Buddhists into Catholicism.” In an attempt to break the Catholic monopoly over this crucial segment of the religious marketplace, Olcott pleaded for a monk to step forward and perform healings “in the name of lord Buddha.” But when no monk came forward, he decided to do the work himself.

    Olcott’s first healing in Asia occurred on August 29, 1882. When a man said to be totally paralyzed in one arm and partially disabled in one leg approached him after a lecture, Olcott recalled his youthful experiments with mesmerism and made a few perfunctory passes over the man’s arm. The next day the man returned with reports of improved health, and Olcott began to treat him systematically Soon the man could, in Olcott’s words, “whirl his bad arm around his head, open and shut his hand,.., jump with both feet, hop on the paralyzed one, kick equally high against the wall with both, and run freely.” News of the Co]Qnel’s healing powers spread across the island “as a match to loose straw” and his fundraising tour was immediately transformed into a roadshow featuring the miraculous healing hands of the instantly charismatic “White Buddhist.” Olcott publicly attributed his healings to the Buddha. Privately he credited the German physician Franz Mesmer.

    Now that Olcott possessed a gift on a par with Blavatsky’s conjuring abilities, scores of patients lined up outside the Theosophical Society headquarters in Adyar (a suburb of Madras), and on an 1882 tour of Bengal Olcott supposedly treated 2,812 patients. Soon, however, the seemingly insatiable needs of his followers overwhelmed Olcott. His popularity became a burden and when, toward the end of 1883, the Theosophical Masters (adepts with whom Blavatsky is supposed to have communicated telepathically) handed down an order to stop the healings, Olcott happily complied.

    Before his healing tours of 1882 and 1883, Olcott had recruited most of his Sinhalese and Indian followers from among the English-speaking middle classes. But his celebrated cures popularized his message, especially in Ceylon, where he may have inspired messianic expectations among Sinhalese peasants.

    OLCOTT SOLIDIFIED HIS ROLE as a leader of the Sinhalese Buddhist Revival in the wake of a tragic Buddhist-Christian riot that occurred on March 25, 1883, in Kotahena, a Catholic stronghold of Colombo. On that day a Buddhist procession marched through the streets on the way to Mohottivatte Gunananda’s newly decorated monastery, the Deepaduttama Vihara, where a new Buddha image was to be dedicated. When the procession approached a Roman Catholic cathedral located a few hundred yards from the temple, the cathedral bell sounded, followed almost immediately by bells in other Catholic churches in the area. As if in response to a signal, about a thousand men descended on the procession and a bloody brawl ensued. Authorities summoned eighty policemen, but their batons were no match for the clubs, swords, and stones of the mob. During the three-hour melee, one man was killed and forty others were injured.

    As the Governor’s Riots Commission investigated the affair, Catholics and Buddhists took each other to court. Numerous cases were filed, but authorities eventually dropped all charges because of a lack of “reliable evidence.” After it had become clear that the Catholics would not be tried, a group of Sinhalese monks and laypeople cabled Olcott urging him to come to Ceylon. Upon his arrival on January 27, 1884, Olcott organized a Buddhist Defense

    Committee, which elected him an honorary member and charged him to travel to London as its representative, “to ask for such redress and enter into such engagements as may appear to him judicious.” Thus, for the first time Olcott’s role as an intermediary between East and West became apparent, not only to himself but to Buddhists and colonial administrators alike.

    Before he left for London, a group of high-ranking Buddhist monks gave Olcott a solemn farewell ceremony, in which they authorized him “to register as Buddhists persons of any nation who may make to him application, to administer the Three Refuges and Five Precepts and to organize societies for the promotion of Buddhism.” The first person of European descent to be 4iven such an honor, Olcott thus became the first Buddhist missionary to the West.

    WHEN OLCOTT ARRIVED in London in April 1884, British colonial officials were already well acquainted with him. In a Woe 26, 1883, letter covering the Report of the Riots Commission, Governor Longden discussed Olcott while reviewing the root causes for the brawl. The most important such cause was, in Longden’s view, the revival of Buddhism. There could be, he wrote, “no doubt” about the “genuineness” of the revival. Signs of it were everywhere:

    The outer evidence of it is to be seen in the rebuilding of old shrines, . . . the larger offerings made to the Temples. Within the Buddhist Church the revival is signalized by a greater number of ordinations held with greater publicity, the care with which the Buddhist doctrines are being taught in the Pali language in the Vidyodaya College and in the monasteries, and the preparation of Buddhist Catechisms in the native and even in the English language.

    Longden appended to his report a copy of Olcott’s Catechism and remarked that the Colonel had “very warmly espoused the cause of Buddhism.” The creole nature of Olcott’s actions was not lost on Longden, who remarked that the Colonel “brought the energy of Western propagandism to [the revival’s] aid.”

    In a subsequent dispatch to Colonial Secretary Derby, Longden again mentioned Olcott, but now in more ominous terms. It was only a matter of time, he wrote, before one or two individuals would arise and take control of Buddhist affairs on the island. Given the “negligent character of the Sinhalese mind,” he reasoned, it was likely that non-Asian Buddhists would fill these leadership roles.

    In May of 1884, almost a year after Longden had warned his superiors about the Colonel, Olcott arrived in London. Though officials were wary of augmenting his already significant influence, he was able to meet with Lord Derby’s assistant undersecretary, R. H. Meade. Shortly thereafter he sent a memo to Lord Derby, demanding: (1) that Catholics accused of instigating the riot be brought to trial; (2) that Buddhists be guaranteed the right to exercise their religion freely; (3) that Wesak—the full moon day on which the Sinhalese commemorate the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and death—be declared a public holiday; (4) that all restrictions against the use of tom-toms and other musical instruments in religious processions be removed; (5) that Buddhist registrars be appointed; and (6) that the question of Buddhist temporalities (the supposedly negligent control of Buddhist properties by monks) be resolved. Olcott enclosed with his memo some accompanying documents that testified to the “discontent and despair” that had in his view gripped the island’s Buddhists following the Kotahena riots. He hinted that, if ignored, their dissatisfaction might result in a rebellion.

    Only two of Olcott’s requests were speedily granted. In the fall of 1884, colonial officials agreed to pursue “more of a hands off policy” regarding the use of tom-toms and other musical instruments in religious processions; and on April 28, 1885, Wesak became an official holiday in British Ceylon.

    Following the negotiations with Meade, Olcott wrote to the chairman of the Buddhist Defense Committee and informed him, over-optimistically, that his mission had been a complete success. Olcott’s Sinhalese supporters concluded that the British proclamation of Wesak as a public holiday was “primarily due to Colonel Olcott’s appeal,” and on April 28, 1885, during the first government-recognized celebration of the Buddha’s birthday’, the now-venerable name of Olcott was invoked frequently and with great devotion.

    DESPITE CLAIMS THAT Olcott initiated the Sinhalese Buddhist Revival, his connection with the movement was, as he himself recognized, neither as originator (credit Mohottivatte Gunananda) nor as culminator (credit Anagarika Dharmapala) but as organizer and articulator. It was Olcott who agitated for Buddhist civil rights, and who gave the revival its organizational shape by founding voluntary associations, publishing and distributing tracts, and, perhaps most important, establishing schools. It was he who articulated most eloquently the “Protestant Buddhism” synthesis. The most Protestant of all early “Protestant Buddhists,” Olcott was a culture broker with one foot planted in traditional Sinhalese Buddhism and the other in liberal American Protestantism. By creatively combining these two sources, along with other influences such as theosophy, academic Orientalism, and metropolitan gentility, he helped to craft a new form of Buddhism that thrives today not only in Sri Lanka but also in the United States.




    From The White Buddhist: The Asian Odyssey of Henry Steel Olcott, Indiana University Press.
    Courtesy: TRICYCLE: THE BUDDHIST REVIEW Fall 1996 pp. 13-19

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    08/25/10
    Buddhist Revival-PART II-WISDOM IS POWER-EDUCATE(BUDDHA)! MEDITATE(DHAMMA)! ORGANISE(SANGHA)!-LESSON – 10 -25810 Free Online e-Nālandā University-Awakened One Shows the Path to Attain Ultimate Bliss Through http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org-Historical Buddhist details of Sri Lanka
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    Buddhist Revival-PART II

    WISDOM IS POWER

    EDUCATE(BUDDHA)!    MEDITATE(DHAMMA)! ORGANISE(SANGHA)!

    25-08-2010

    LESSON – 10

    25810 Free Online e-Nālandā University

    Awakened One Shows the Path to Attain Ultimate Bliss

    Through

    http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org

    COMPUTER IS AN ENTERTAINMENT INSTRUMENT!

    INTERNET!

    IS

    ENTERTAINMENT NET!

    TO BE MOST APPROPRIATE!

    Using such an instrument

    The Free e-Nālandā University has been re-organized to function through the following Schools of Learning :

    Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath scientific thought in

    mathematics,

    astronomy,

    alchemy,

    and

    anatomy

    Buddha Taught his Dhamma Free of cost, hence the Free- e-Nālandā follows suit

    As the Original Nālandā University did not offer any Degree, so also the Free  e-Nālandā University.

    Main Course Programs:

    I.
    KAMMA

    REBIRTH

    AWAKEN-NESS 

    BUDDHA

    THUS COME ONE

    DHARMA

    II.
    ARHAT

    FOUR HOLY TRUTHS

    EIGHTFOLD PATH

    TWELVEFOLD CONDITIONED ARISING

    BODHISATTVA

    PARAMITA

    SIX PARAMITAS

    III.

    SIX SPIRITUAL POWERS

    SIX PATHS OF REBIRTH

    TEN DHARMA REALMS

    FIVE SKANDHAS

    EIGHTEEN REALMS

    FIVE MORAL PRECEPTS

    IV.

    MEDITATION

    MINDFULNESS

    FOUR APPLICATIONS OF MINDFULNESS

    LOTUS POSTURE

    SAMADHI

    CHAN SCHOOL

    FOUR DHYANAS

    FOUR FORMLESS REALMS

    V.

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    Historical Buddhist details of Sri Lanka

    After the third Buddhist Council held during the reign of the great, Indian Emperor Asoka (273-236 BC) under the Chairmanship of Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa Maha Thera several missions were sent to preach the Dhamma in and outside India. Emperor Asoka’s son Arahant Mahinda together with four others were sent to Sri Lanka. They preached the teachings of the Buddha to King Devanampiyatissa (247-207 BC), who being greatly impressed readily accepted Buddhism. Its progress was phenomenal. Thrice during the reign of ancient Sinhala Kings the whole land of Sri Lanka was offered to the Buddha. Thousands of men and women embraced the new faith and many entered the Bhikkhu Order. Monasteries were erected and rich endowments were made for their upkeep.

    Queen Anula, consort of an Uparaja (sub-king) named Mahanaga with 500 of her attendant ladies having listened to discourses, gained mental attainmetits and implored Arahant Mahinda to grant them ordination. But as monks were not allowed to ordain females, emissaries were sent to Emperor Asoka to send bhikkunis to ordain them. Sanghamitta, sister of Van. Mahinda, who had received ordination was sent to Sri Lanka. With the ordination of Anula and several others, both the Bhikku Order and the Bhikkuni Order were established in the Island.

    Two great events in the early history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka left a deep impression and still evoke pious enthusiasm among millions of Buddhists. The transplantation of a branch of the Bodhi tree under which Buddhahood was attained served as an inspiration to the people who had recently embraced the religion. The second event was the bringing of the Buddha’s tooth relic from India.

    There followed a period of political unrest in early lst century BC when foreign rulers from South India seized Anuradhapura, the capital. The lack of interest of these Tamil rulers in the Buddhist faith and vandalism of their supporters evidently retarded the progress of the religion.

    The reign of King Dutugemunu (101-77 BC) may be acclaimed the golden era of Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka. In addition to a large number of men and women entering the Order, many were also practising meditation in forests and rock caves. The affairs of the Sangha were managed by the monks themselves under well established rules. King Dutugemunu built the most celebrated stupa, the Ruwanveli Maha Seya in Anuradhapura. and the Brazen Palace, the magnificient edifice of nine storeys and 900 chambers for use of the monks.

    The Fourth Council according to Theravada tradition, was held in Aloka Vihara, near Matale during the reign of King Vattha Gamini Abhaya (29-17 BC). Afterwards, 500 monks presided by Ven. Rakkhita committed the entire Buddhist Canon (Tri-pitaka) and the Commentaries (Atthakatha) to writing. This timely action of the Sinhalese king helped in preserving the original Buddhist Canon to this day, and made Sri Lanka the home of pristine Buddhism.

    Sri Lanka by now had become the champion of pure Theravada tradition. Mahavihara in Anuradhapura was the centre of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. From time to time protagonists of different sects came from India to Anuradhapura. Some received royal patronage which led to bitter controversies between the Mahavihara and the later Abhayagiri Vihara which became traditionally the home of dissentient sects referred to as ‘heretics’ (Vetulla or Vaitulya). The Abhayagiri Vihara received the highest support during the time of King Mahasena (334-362 CE) being influenced by Sanghamitra, a learned monk who was tutor to the king when he was young and one who was close to Sri lankan monks living in exile in Kaveri due to their upholding ‘Vaitulya’ views.

    Mahasena’s successor was King Sri Megha-vanna ( 352-379 CE ) who restored the Mahavihara to its pristine previous glory. His greatest contribution was the building of a vihara in Buddha Gaya, with permission from King Samudra Gupta, for Sri Lankan monks. It acted as an outpost of Theravada Buddhism in India at a time when Pail Buddhism had lost much of its popularity in India. Buddha Gaya under Sri Lankan monks, firm in their allegiance to Pali, stood as an oasis for those who were desirous of learning the pure Buddha word. The most significant reward was the conversion of Ghosa later known throughout the Buddhist world as Buddhaghosa.

    An important event was the coming of the great Pali commentator Buddhaghosa to Sri Lanka in the time of King Mahanama (450-480 CE). The Visuddimagga written by him before the Mahavihara monks gave the Sinhala commentaries to be translated to Pali, is ample testimony to his erudition and great scholarship. In the same way it also showed the great responsibility with which the Mahavihara monks acted, as the guardians of the word of the Buddha in its pristine purity. Although the Sinhala commentaries went out of vogue because of the translations into Pali, the original traditions are preserved to this date. Furthermore, these traditions again became current among the Buddhist scholars of the time. No single individual has contributed more to the preservation of the Theravada tradition than Ven. Buddhaghosa.

    There was a great revival of Buddhism under Parakramabahu 1 (1153-1186 CE), who re-united the whole of Sri Lanka. The Polonnaruwa period had three great benefactors of Buddhism-Vijayabahu 1 (1055-1 1 10 CE), Parakramabahu 1 and Nissanka Malia ( 1187-1196 CE ). Politically Sri Lanka reached the zenith of her power during the reign of Parakramabahu, who sent sea expeditions even to Burma and Pandya country in South India. The most important Buddhist event was the reunification of the Mahavihara, Abhayagiri and Jetavana Sangha in 1165 CE after the holding of a Council for tho purification of the Sangha under the leadership of Ven. Dimbulagala Kasyapa. A code of disciplinary rules (Katikavata) was also promulgated by him and recorded in a stone inscription. During this time, Sri Lanka was gaining pre-eminence in the Buddhist world.

    Anuradhapura, which was the centre of Buddhism and also the political capital, was abandoned after a period of nearly 1500 years. Polonnaruwa was held for only 300 years. After the devastating rule of Magha of Kalinga (1215-1236 CE) which brought destruction all round, the Sinhala rulers were forced towards the Central and South West regions. The frequent invasions from South Indian Tamil rulers and the resulting change of citadels ushered in a period of stress, which even affected the cause of Buddhism. Libraries full of valuable Buddhist books were burnt down and Buddhist monks dispersed. Yet the Kings remained Buddhist and gave whatever support they could offer for its sustenance. The monks of Sri Lanka, however, maintained their superiority in piety, erudition and scholarship. In 1316 CE a Sangharaja (chief monk) from Sri Lanka was invited by the then King of Siam to organise the Songha(Buddhist Order) in that country.

    The political stability that was maintained by Parakramabahu 11 and his successors until about the 15th century began to weaken by the end of that century. The Portuguese made use of internal dissensions to obtain a political foothold in the country. They claimed legitimacy to the whole of the maritme provinces, first as the protector and then as the successor of the last King of Kotte who was baptised as a Catholic. The Portuguese suppressed Buddhism, the national religion of the Sinhalese people and started a ruthless programme of proselytising. Such were the cruelties inflicted on the local Sinhala people that Father Queroz, a Portuguese Roman Catholic Father who wrote a History of Ceylon, mentions in his history that they lost Ceylon, the land of Eden, to the Dutch as ‘the arm of God was raised against the Portuguese’ for their crimes. This period was one of the darkest periods of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

    After Vimala Dharmasuriya 1.(1592-1664 CE) ascended the throne of the hill capital, Kandy, he obtained monks from Rakkhanga (Arakan) to restore the ordination to Sri Lanka.

    In 1658 CE the Portuguese were expelled from the country and the Dutch came to occupy the regions which were formerly occupied by the Portuguese. When the Dutch were occupying the maritime provinces several Sinhalese rulers of the Kandyan kingdom made attempts to restore Buddhism. Vimala Dharmasuriya 11 (1687-1706 CE) constructed a three-storieyed pavilion for the Tooth Relic. He too sent an emissary to Rakkhanga (Arakan) to obtain monks for an ordination ceremony as the state of the Order of monks was unsatisfactory.

    The reign of King Kirti Sri Rajasinhe ( 1747-1782 CE) proved to be one of the most inspiring periods for Buddhism. At the time of his accession the Order of monks had sunk to a very low level. There was not a single monk in the whole island who had received the higher ordination. An emissary was sent to King Dhammika of Siam who sent monks to re-establish the higher ordination ceremony . Several hundreds of persons were ordained and the king also proclaimed a ‘Katikovata’ (code of conduct) for the guidance of the monks. In all these religious activities the king, was inspired and guided by a great personality, a Samanera (novice) who was distinguished for his piety, enthusiasm, learning and determination. He was Welivita Sri Saranankara who later received higher ordination and was appointed Sangharaja of Sri Lanka. He was also responsible for a literary revival as a result of the impetus given by him to the study of the Pali language and the Buddha’s teachings. Many religious works were compiled by him.

    The successors of Ven. Sri Saranankara are known as belonging ‘to the Syamopali Nikaya, now popularly called the Siyam Nikaya (Siamese Order). In 1799 CE a Samanera, Ambagahapitiya Nanawimalatissa went to Amarapura in Burma to obtain higher ordination and on his return, he established the Amorapura Nikyaya (Order) in 1803 CE. Subsequently, in 1863 Ven. Ambagahawatta Sri Saranankara established the Ramanna Nikaya. These three Nikayas or Orders exist up to this day with no doctrinal differences between them.

    In 1796 CE, during the reign of King Rajadhi Rajasinghe (1782-1798CE) the Dutch who were defeated in battle surrendered their territories to the British and left Sri Lanka. In 1802 CE these territories became a British colony. In 1815 CE at a solemn assembly of the Kandyan chiefs and the monks,’ ‘King Sri Wickrema Rajasinghe (1 798~ 1 815CE) was deposed and his territories vested in the British Crown. He was the last king of Sri Lanka. In the treaty that was signed between the British and the Kandyan chiefs, the British promised -to safeguard Buddhism, declaring its rights and ceremonies sacred and inviolate. However the British attitude towards Buddhism soon caused dissatisfaction among the Sinhala chiefs, who along with the monks realised that the British had no desire to respect the clause of the treaty relating to Buddhism, and that they were keen on converting the people to their own faith.

    In the period that followed, there was much ridiculing of Buddhism through books and pamphlets written in the vernaculars which Christian preachers distributed in propagating their faith. This was besides the mass proselytising of Buddhist children through the school system. These resulted in an open challenge being made by Ven. Mohottiwatte Gunananda to the Christians to defend their faith. It was accepted by the Christian clergy. This led to three public debates one at Uyanwita in 1866 CE, the second at Gampola, in 1871 CE and the last at Panadura in 1873 CE.

    There was wide coverage in the Press for the Panadura Debate where rules were laid down for fair play. Reports of the debate and the efforts made by the Sinhala Buddhists to safeguard their rights reached America and inspired a. young American lawyer, Henry Steele Olcott to come to Sri ‘Lanka in May 1880 CE and fight the Buddhist cause. The defeat of the Christians in debate, more than anything else, broke the myth of the infallibility of the Christian Church and was one of the major contributing factors to the Buddhist revival in the country.

    On arrival, Olcott became a Buddhist and formed the Buddhist Theosophical Society for the purpose of establishing English schools for the Buddhist children. He also made representations to the British rulers and in 1885 made them declare the Full moon day of Vesak (May) a public holiday. He also felt the need of a special flag for the Buddhists which he assisted in establishing and the flag was later accepted by all Buddhists as their flag.

    One of the great Buddhist revivalists of the country, Anagarika Dharmapala was inspired by Olcott and became one of his close co-workers. Anagarika Dharmapata founded the Mahabodhi Society in 1891 CE and fought hard to get back Buddha Gaya and other places of veneration in India for the Buddhists. He also originated the idea of a Buddhist Vihara in London.

    Sri Lanka took the lead in the spread and revival of Buddhism in the modern era. Vidyodaya and Vidyalankara Pirivenas (Oriental Colleges) found in 1871 and 1873 respectively became important centres of Buddhist learning and many monks from Thailand, Burma, Nepal, Cambodia and other Buddhist countries came to these two centres to learn Buddhism and the oriental languages.

    Of monasteries, the most important were the Vajiraramaya in Bambalapitlya, Island Hermitage in Dodanduwa and the Forest Hermitage in Kandy. Many Westerners, intent in obtaining a deep insight into Buddhism came and lived as monks in these monasteries. Notable amongst them were Ven. Nanavira Nanamoli from England, Ven. Nyanatiloka, Ven. Nyanaponika. and Ven. Nyanavimala from Germany, Ven. Nyanasatta from Czechoslovakia and Ven. Nyanajivika from Yugoslavia. Monks from the Vajiraramaya also went on Buddhist dharmaduta work. The leading monk was Ven. Narada whose first mission was to Indonesia in 1934 CE. Later his missions took him to Nepal, Vietnam. Singapore, Ball in the East and to Sweden, Germany, England and many other European countries in the west. Ven. Amirtananda and Ven. Subhodananda who obtained higher ordination under Ven. Pelene Sri Vajiranana of Vajiraramaya were greatly responsible for the revival of Buddhism in Nepal.

    In preparation for the Buddha Jayanti-2500th year of the Buddhist Era-failing on Vesak day of 1956 CE, the Lanka Bauddha Mandalaya was established in 1954 CE and work on a Buddhist Encyclopaedia in English was undertaken with Professor G. P. Malalasekera, Professor of Pali. University of Sri Lanka, as chief editor. The translation of the Tri-pitaka to Sinhala was also undertaken as a state venture.

    The Buddha Jayanthi was celebrated in a fitting manner with dignitaries of Buddhist countries being invited for the celebrations centred round each full moon day of the year which resulted in closer ties being developed amongst the Buddhists.

    Some important developments in recent times were the establishment of the Buddhasravaka Dharma Pitaya in Anuradhapura (1968 CE). Department of Buddhist Affairs (1981 CE)and the Universityof Buddhist and Pali Studies (1982 CE). 
     
     

    http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/perera/wheel100.html

    Buddhism in Sri Lanka

    A Short History

    by

    H.R. Perera

    © 2007–2010

    Contents   

    1.       Preface

    2.       State of Sri Lanka before the Introduction of Buddhism

    3.       Early Traditions

    4.       Colonization by Prince Vijaya and his Followers

    5.       Political Development and Social Organization after Vijaya

    6.       Pre-Buddhist Religion in Sri Lanka

    7.       Emperor Asoka and Buddhism in India

    8.       The Mission to Sri Lanka

    9.       Arrival of Mahinda

    10.   Entry into the Capital

    11.   Sanghamittaa and Women Disciples

    12.   Arrival of the Sacred Bo-Tree

    13.   The Firm Establishment of the Saasana

    14.   Progress of Buddhism in Lanka

    15.   The Passing Away of Mahinda and Sanghamittaa

    16.   Invasion of Tamils and Restoration of the Saasana by King Dutthagaamani

    17.   Social and Cultural Development due to Buddhism

    18.   Vattagaamani Abhaya

    19.   The First Schism

    20.   Writing of the Sacred Books

    21.   The Growth of Dissentient Schools

    22.   The Nature of the New Doctrines

    23.   The Sacred Tooth Relic

    24.   Buddhaghosa Thera and the Compilation of the Pali Commentaries

    25.   The Pali Chronicles

    26.   Political Unrest and the Decline of Buddhism

    27.   Vijayabaahu I and the Revival of Buddhism

    28.   Revival of Buddhism under Paraakramabaahu the Great

    29.   Compilation of Religious Treatises

    30.   Decline of Buddhism after Paraakramabaahu I and Restoration by Paraakramabaahu II

    31.   The Literary Revival

    32.   Embassy from Burma to Obtain Ordination

    33.   Establishment of Mahaavihaarava.msa in Burma

    34.   The Arrival of the Portuguese and the Persecution of Buddhism

    35.   Persecution of Buddhism by Raajasinha I

    36.   Vimala Dharmasuriya’s Attempt at Restoring Buddhism

    37.   Successors of Vimala Dharmasuriya I and the Arrival of the Dutch in Sri Lanka

    38.   Vimala Dharmasuriya II and his Successors

    39.   The Reign of Kirti Sri Raajasinha

    40.   Velivita Sri Saranankara

    41.   The Arrival of the British and the End of Sinhalese Rule in Sri Lanka

    42.   The British Attitude towards Buddhism

    43.   The Christian Missionary Activities

    44.   Mohottiwatte Gunaananda Thera and the Buddhist Re-awakening

    45.   Colonel Olcott and Buddhist Activities

    46.   Other Activities of the Buddhist Renaissance Movement

    47.   Anagaarika Dharmapaala and the Buddhist Cultural Revival

    48.   Buddhism in Sri Lanka in the First Half of the Twentieth Century

    49.   The Buddha Jayanti and After

    Preface   

    The present treatise, Buddhism in Sri Lanka: A Short History deals with the history of Buddhism in this island from the time of its introduction in 250 BCE in the reign of King Devaanampiya Tissa, up to the present time (1966). The work is the outcome of an attempt to revise Dr. W. A. de Silva’s monograph entitled “History of Buddhism in Ceylon” appearing in Buddhistic Studies of Dr. B. C. Law (Calcutta, 1931). It should be mentioned, with due respect to the great scholar and national leader, that several of the chapters of his monograph have been reproduced here while many have been revised and enlarged. A few new chapters too have been added where it was deemed necessary.

    The author’s and the publishers’ thanks are due to Messrs. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta, the publishers of Buddhistic Studies, for their kind permission to make use of Dr. W. A. de Silva’s article.

    The writer of the present work has made use of a large number of other works, both ancient and modern, in its compilation. The chronicles of Sri Lanka, mainly the Mahaava.msa and theDiipava.msa, The History of Ceylon (University Press), Vol. I, Parts I & II, and the article on “Mahayanism in Ceylon” by Dr. S. Paranavitana, Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon by Dr. E. W. Adikaram, History of Buddhism in Ceylon by the Ven. W. Rahula, The Pali Literature of Ceylon by Dr. G. P. Malalasekera, Bauddha Toraturu Prakaasaka Sabhaave Vaartaava(Sinhalese), the Buddhist Commission Report (Sinhalese) and the Diamond Jubilee Souvenir of the Maha Bodhi Society of India, should be especially mentioned among them, with gratitude to their authors and editors.

    The relevant material from these numerous works has been synthetised to give the reader a basic knowledge of the history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka from the earliest time up to the present. It is hoped that this book will serve this purpose, especially to those who wish to gain this knowledge by reading a single short treatise.

    — H. R. Perera

    Publisher’s Note: In accordance with the official change of the island’s name in 1972, throughout the text the word “Ceylon” has been changed to “Sri Lanka” or “Lanka,” except in a few cases where it was thought necessary or desirable to retain “Ceylon.” [BPS]

    1. State of Sri Lanka before the Introduction of Buddhism   

    Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in 236 b.e. (cir. 250 BCE)[1] and became the national religion of the Sinhalese from that date. It is, however, necessary for a proper study of the history of Buddhism in the island to consider the state of the island and its social and political developments and the culture and character of the people immediately preceding this period. This will enable us to get a clear understanding of the manner in which such a far-reaching revolution in the beliefs, manners, customs and character of a people was effected by the introduction of this new religion and the progress in literature, art and culture that has been manifested through its influence.

    2. Early Traditions   

    According to the early chronicles relating the historical traditions of Sri Lanka, a prince named Vijaya and his followers who came from India and landed in Lanka on the day of the Parinibbaana of the Buddha were the first human inhabitants of this island. When they came the island was occupied by “yakkhas” (sprites, demons). “Yakkhas” and “naagas” are also said to have inhabited Lanka in the time of the Buddha. A legend relating the existence of a great civilization before this time, under a king named Raavana, is also current though the early chronicles make no mention of it.

    The Vijaya legend of these chronicles is taken by modern historians as a poetic expression of the actual aryanization of Sri Lanka in about the sixth century BCE The term “yakkhas and naagas” may refer to the aborigines who occupied the island before their arrival. No traces of an advanced civilization, however, have yet been discovered to support the Raavana legend. Archaeologists have discovered chert and quartz implements and tools at various sites, believed to have been used by aborigines of Sri Lanka, and they indicate that these people were a primitive tribe who lived by hunting. These aborigines have not left traces of a strong political organization or an advanced culture. The present Veddas are believed to be their descendants.

    3. Colonization by Prince Vijaya and his Followers   

    Vijaya and his 700 followers are described in the Lankan chronicles as a set of adventurous young men who, when they were banished from their Indian homeland Laala (or Laata), came in search of new land for settlement. Other legends, some of which are even older, relating how the first aryan inhabitants came to settle down in Lanka are found in several Pali and Sanskrit works. Most of them show that the settlement of early aryan settlers is due to the enterprise of the pioneering merchant mariners who came to this island for pearls and precious stones. Historians thus do not lay much reliance on the details of the Vijayan legend but they accept Vijaya as the first traditional ruler of the newcomers — the Sinhalese.

    Vijaya, who was a Kshatriya,[2] landed in Lanka, according to the chronicles, on the day of the Parinibbaana of the Buddha. He allied himself with an aboriginal princess named Kuveni and married her and with her influence soon became the master of the country. Later he drove Kuveni away and obtained a princess from Maduraa whom he made his queen. Maidens of high birth came from the Pandyan kingdom as wives of his followers.

    Vijaya ruled from his settlement Tambappanni and his ministers founded other settlements like Anuraadhagaama, Upatissagaama, Ujjeni, Uruvelaa and Vijitapura. Thus the earliest settlements that were founded in the time of King Vijaya were located along the river banks in the northwestern region of Lanka like the Malvatu-oya and the Kalaa-oya.

    4. Political Development and Social Organization after Vijaya   

    Vijaya died after a rule of 38 years. Since he had no son to succeed him, before his death he sent messengers to his brother Sumitta in Sihapura to come and rule here. Sumitta sent his youngest son Panduvaasudeva, since he himself was king of Sihapura and was also too old. Panduvaasudeva, Vijaya’s nephew, arrived one year after Vijaya’s death during which period the ministers of Vijaya ruled the country. When Panduvaasudeva came he brought with him 32 sons of ministers.

    The early chronicles preserve an episode which connects the Sakka family of the Buddha with the sovereignty of Lanka from the time of King Panduvaasudeva. According to this account, Bhaddakaccaanaa, who also arrived in Lanka with 32 other maidens shortly after Panduvaasudeva arrived, was the daughter of Pandu Sakka, who himself was the son of Amitodana, an uncle of the Buddha.

    Panduvaasudeva ruled for 30 years and was succeeded by his eldest son Abhaya, who ruled for 20 years. Abhaya’s successor was Pandukaabhaya, the son of his sister Ummaadacitta. Pandukaabhaya was a great ruler in whose reign Anuraadhapura developed into a great city with well-marked boundaries. After a long reign of 70 years, Pandukaabhaya was succeeded by his son Mutasiva who ruled for 60 years. Mutasiva’s second son, Devaanampiya Tissa, succeeded him in 250 BCE, that is, 236 years after the accession of Vijaya.

    These 236 years could be reckoned as a separate period in the history of Sri Lanka for it formed the background for the offical introduction of Buddhism, which occurred during the opening years of the next ruler, King Devaanampiya Tissa. During this period the aryan colonists founded settlements along the fertile river banks almost throughout the island. They chose the river banks because they were mainly agriculturists. Thus the regions watered by the Malvatu-oya, Kalaa-oya, Valave-ganga, Kirindi-oya, Menik-ganga and Kumbukkan-oya, the Kelani-ganga and some regions around the Mahaveli-ganga soon became populated. Anuraadhapura became a well-organized city with boundaries marked, lakes dug and hospitals and other buildings constructed.[3] In the south, Mahaagaama (Maagama), became the center of activity. The majority of the aboriginal inhabitants were absorbed into the new community through intermarriage while a few withdrew to the Malayadesa, the highlands.

    5. Pre-Buddhist Religion in Sri Lanka   

    It is evident from the chronicles relating the early history of Sri Lanka that before the introduction of Buddhism in the reign of King Devaanampiya Tissa (250-210 BCE) there was no single religion which was widely accepted as the national religion of the country. Nevertheless, there was a wide range of religious beliefs and practices, different from one another, and each individual seems to have freely observed his religion according to his belief.

    A noteworthy feature of the pre-Buddhist religion of Sri Lanka is that it was a mixture of the aboriginal cults and the beliefs of the aryan newcomers.

    The worship of yaksas and yaksinis was a widely prevalent aboriginal custom of pre-Buddhist Lanka. King Pandukaabhaya, the grandfather of Devaanampiya Tissa, provided shrines for many of these spirits and also gave them sacrificial offerings annually. Some of these yaksas and yaksinis mentioned by name are Kaalavela, Cittaraaja, Vessavana, Valavaamukhi and Cittaa. Vyaadhadeva, Kammaaradeva and Pacchimaraajini, though not known as yaksas and yaksinis, also belong to the same category of aboriginal spirits. Trees like the banyan and palmyrah were also connected with the cults of these spirits showing that tree-worship was also prevalent.

    Many scholars agree that these yaksas and other non-human beings are none but the spirits of the dead relatives and tribal chiefs who, the people believed, were capable of helping friends and harming enemies. This belief, as is widely known, formed one of the main features of the primitive religion and is extant even today.

    Accounts relating the pre-Buddhist history of Sri Lanka also show a considerable influence of the religious trends of India on the society of Lanka. Several niganthas (Jainas) such as Giri, Jotiya and Kumbhanda lived in the reign of Pandukaabhaya and hermitages were constructed for them and other ascetics like aajivakas, brahmans and the wandering mendicant monks. Five hundred families of heretical beliefs also lived near the city of Anuraadhapura. The brahmans occupied a high place in society and their religious beliefs were also respected. The worship of Siva too may have been prevalent.

    The account in the Mahaava.msa[4] of the settling of the adherents of various sects by King Pandukaabhaya does not specifically mention the presence of any adherents of Buddhism among them. But the work refers to three visits of the Buddha to Sri Lanka, a statement which, though not corroborated by other evidence, has not been disproved. Legendary accounts also claim that two stuupas — the Mahiyangana and the Girihandu — were constructed before the introduction of Buddhism. Among the newcomers too there could have been some members who were acquainted with Buddhism, especially as Bhaddakaccaanaa, who arrived with 32 other maidens in the guise of nuns, was a close relative of the Buddha.

    6. Emperor Asoka and Buddhism in India   

    Buddhism as a form of religious expression gained ascendency in India during this period. Emperor Asoka was crowned, according to the chronicles, in the year 218 of the Buddhist era (i.e., 268 BCE). Like his father Bindusaara and grandfather Candragupta, Asoka was a follower of the brahmanical faith at the beginning of his reign. In the early years of his reign he followed an expansionist policy and in the eighth year of his coronation he conquered Kaalinga, in the course of which 100,000 were slain and 150,000 taken prisoners. But the carnage of the Kaalinga war caused him much grief and the king was attracted towards the humanistic teachings of Buddhism. According to the Sri Lanka chronicles, it was a young novice named Nigrodha who converted Asoka.

    After the conversion of this great emperor Buddhism flourished under his patronage. He inculcated the teachings of the Buddha and set up edicts of morality at numerous places of his vast empire so that his subjects would adhere to them and his successors might follow him. He himself followed those morals and set an example to the others. The king is reputed to have built 84,000 stupas. The monks were lavishly provided with their requisites.

    The king even permitted his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamittaa to join the Order when they were twenty and eighteen years of age respectively. These two illustrious disciples became noted for their piety, attainments, learning and profound knowledge of the Dhamma.

    Vast numbers joined the Order in the reign of Asoka solely to share the benefits showered on it by the king, and such people were not only lax in their conduct, but also held doctrines counter to the teachings of the Buddha.

    It was this dissenting element that led to the holding of the Third Buddhist Council under the patronage of King Asoka in order to purify the Buddhist religion (Saasana). It was at this Council held by a thousand theras (elders) under the leadership of Moggaliputta Tissa, at Paataliputta, that the Pali Canon of the Theravaada, as it exists today, was finally redacted.

    At this Council was also taken the important, decision of sending missionaries to different regions to preach Buddhism and establish the Saasana there. Thus the thera Moggaliputta Tissa deputed Majjhantika Thera to Kaasmira-Gandhaara, Mahaadeva Thera to Mahisamandala, Rakkhita Thera to Vanavaasi, Yona-Dhammarakkhita Thera to Aparaantaka, Dhammarakkhita Thera to Mahaarattha, Mahaarakkhita Thera to Yonaloka, Majjhima Thera to Himavanta, theras So.na and Uttara to Suvannabhuumi, and Mahinda Thera with theras Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasaala to Lanka, saying unto the five theras: “Establish ye in the delightful land of Lanka the delightful religion of the Vanquisher.”

    7. The Mission to Sri Lanka   

    Mahinda was thirty-two years old when he undertook the mission to Sri Lanka. He had adopted the religious life at the age of twenty, mastered the doctrines and attained the highest spiritual life, i.e., arahantship. Pondering on the fitting time to come to Lanka, he perceived that Mutasiva, the ruler at that time, was in his old age, and hence it was advisable to tarry until his son became ruler.

    In the meantime Mahinda visited his relatives at Dakkhinaagiri and his mother at Vedisagiri along with his companions. His mother Devi, whom Asoka had married while he was yet a prince, was living at Vedisagiri at that time. Having stayed for six months at Dakkhinaagiri and a month at Vedisagiri, Mahinda perceived that the right time had come, for the old ruler was dead and his son Devaanampiya Tissa had become king.

    Devaanampiya Tissa was the second son of Mutasiva. He was a friend of Asoka even before he became king but the two had not seen each other. The first thing that Devaanampiya Tissa did when he became king was to send envoys to Asoka, bearing costly presents. The envoys, when they returned, brought among other things the following message from Asoka:

    “Aha.m Buddhañ ca Dhammañ ca Sanghañ ca sara.na.mgato upaasakatta.m vedesi.m Saakyaputtassa saasane tvamp’imaani ratanaani uttamaani naruttama citta.m pasaadayitvaana saddhaaya sara.na.m bhaja.”

    “I have taken refuge in the Buddha, his Doctrine and his Order, I have declared myself a lay-disciple in the religion of the Saakya son; seek then, O best of men, refuge in these best of gems, converting your mind with believing heart.”

    This message of Asoka was conveyed to King Devaanampiya Tissa in the month of Vesakha and it was the full-moon day of the following month Jettha (Sinh. Poson) that Mahinda fixed for his arrival in Sri Lanka. Among the companions of Mahinda were the theras Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasaala, the saamanera Sumana who was the son of Sanghamittaa, and the lay-disciple Bhanduka who was the son of a daughter of Devi’s sister and had become an anaagaami (once-returner) on hearing a sermon of Mahinda preached to Devi.

    8. Arrival of Mahinda   

    Thus on the full-moon day of the month of Jettha in the year 236 b.e. (i.e., 250 BCE) Mahinda and his companions, departing from Vedisagiri, rose up in the air and alighted on the Silakuuta of the pleasant Missaka hill, presently Mihintale, eight miles east of Anuraadhapura. The thera alighted here for he had perceived that he would meet the king there on that day.

    The first meeting of the king of Lanka and the thera Mahinda is graphically described in the chronicles of Sri Lanka. The full-moon day of Jettha was a day of national festival in Lanka. Men and women were engaged in amusing themselves. The king with a large party of followers went to Mihintale hills on a hunting expedition. There he saw the theras with shaven heads dressed in yellow robes, of dignified mien and distinguished appearance, who faced him and addressed him not as ordinary men addressing a king but as those to whom a king was their inferior. The conversation impressed the king and his immediate surrender to the wisdom and piety displayed by the thera was complete. Mahinda Thera in reply to the king’s inquiry as to who they were and whence they had come, said:

    “Sama.naa maya.m Mahaaraaja Dhammaraajassa saavakaa tav’eva anukampaaya Jambudiipaa idhaagataa.”

    “We are the disciples of the Lord of the Dhamma. In compassion towards you, Mahaaraaja, We have come here from India.”

    When he heard these words of the thera, the king laid aside his bow and arrow, and approaching the thera, exchanged greetings with him and sat down near him. Mahinda then had a conversation with the king, and realizing that the king was intelligent enough to comprehend the Dhamma, preached the Cuulahatthipadopama Sutta.[5] At the end of the discourse the king and his retinue of forty thousand people embraced the new faith. Having invited the missionaries to the city the king left for his palace. Mahinda spent his first day in Sri Lanka at Mihintale where he solemnized the first ecclesiastical act by admitting to the Order the lay-follower Bhanduka who had accompanied him from India.

    9. Entry into the Capital   

    On the invitation of the king, Mahinda and the other theras arrived at Anuraadhapura the following day. Going forward to meet the theras, the king respectfully led them into the palace where he himself served them with dainty food. After the meal Mahinda preached the Petavatthu, the Vimaanavatthu and the Sacca-sa.myutta to the royal household.

    The people of the city who heard of the theras flocked near the palace-gate to see them and the king prepared a hall outside the palace so that the townspeople could see the theras. On this occasion Mahinda preached the Devaduuta Sutta (Majjhima Nikaaya, No. 130).

    This hall too was not spacious enough for the vast gathering and seats were prepared for the theras in the Nandana-garden in the royal park, where Mahinda preached the Baalapandita Sutta, (Majjhima Nikaaya, No. 129).

    In the evening the theras expressed their desire to go back to Mihintale. The king, who wished them to stay in his capital, granted to the Sangha the royal park Mahaamegha for their residence. The king himself marked the boundaries by plowing a furrow. Thus was established the Mahaavihaara which became the earliest celebrated center of the Buddhist religion. Having spent twenty-six days in the Mahaamegha Park, the thera returned to Mihintale for the rain-retreat (vassa). This was the beginning of the Cetiyagiri-vihaara, another great monastic institution of early Buddhist Sri Lanka.

    10. Sanghamittaa and Women Disciples   

    Many women of Sri Lanka, headed by Queen Anulaa, desired to enter the Order of disciples and thus it came about that emissaries led by the king’s nephew Arittha were sent to Emperor Asoka to obtain the help of female disciples to enable the women of Lanka to obtain ordination.

    Sanghamittaa, the sister of Mahinda Thera, who had entered the Order and had received ordination, was sent out to Lanka at the request of the king and the people and on the recommendation of Mahinda Thera.

    The message sent by thera Mahinda to Emperor Asoka pleased him very much, for in it he realized that the mission to Lanka had been eminently successful and the king and the people of Lanka had accepted the new doctrine with enthusiasm.

    11. Arrival of the Sacred Bo-Tree   

    Emperor Asoka decided on sending a token of the Great and Enlightened One to the land of Lanka and prepared a branch of the Sacred Bodhi Tree under which the Lord attained enlightenment. He planted the branch in a golden vessel and, when it had taken root, conveyed it to the ship, depositing it in the ship. He also sent a large number of attendants to accompany the tree. The chronicles mention that these were selected from the brahmans, nobles and householders and consisted of 64 families. Sanghamittaa Therii and her attendants embarked on the same ship as well as the ambassadors and messengers who came from Lanka.

    The ship sailed from Taamralipti (Tamluk) and arrived at the port in Lanka in seven days. The port was known as Jambukola and was situated in the north of the island. The king of Lanka on hearing of the arrival of the ship had the road from Jambukola to the capital city of Anuraadhapura gaily decorated. He arrived in state and himself took charge of the Sacred Bodhi Tree. This tree was planted in the Mahaamegha garden of Anuraadhapura with great festivities and tended with honor and care. Up to this date it flourishes as one of the most sacred objects of veneration and worship for millions of Buddhists.

    12. The Firm Establishment of the Saasana   

    Arittha, the king’s nephew who had obtained the king’s permission to enter the Order of monks on his return from India, did so with five hundred other men and all became arahants. With the ordination of Anulaa and the other women both the Bhikkhu-saasana and the Bhikkhuni-saasana were established in the island. Separate residences for monks and nuns were built by the king. The Thuupaaraama-cetiya enshrining the right collar-bone and other bodily relics of the Buddha was built, and the Sacred Bodhi Tree was planted for the devotion of the laity. When these acts of religious devotion were accomplished, the king asked Mahinda Thera whether the Saasana had been firmly established in the island, to which the latter replied that it had only been planted but would take firm root when a person born in Sri Lanka, of Sinhalese parents, studied the Vinaya in Sri Lanka and expounded it in Sri Lanka.

    Arittha Thera had by this time become noted for his piety and his learning and on an appointed day, at a specially constructed preaching hall, in the presence of numerous theras, the king and the chiefs, Arittha Thera was invited to give a discourse on the Vinaya in the presence of the thera Mahaa Mahinda. And his exposition was so correct and pleasing that there was great rejoicing as the condition required for the firm establishment of the Saasana was fulfilled by him.

    13. Progress of Buddhism in Lanka   

    Devaanampiya Tissa ruled in Sri Lanka for forty years. It was in the first year of his reign that Buddhism was introduced and from that time the king worked for the progress of the new faith with great zeal. Apart from the Mahaavihaara, the Cetiyapabbatavihaara, the Thuuparaama and the Sacred Bodhi Tree, he established numerous other monasteries and several Buddhist monuments. The chronicles mention that he built monasteries a yojana from one another. Among these monuments the Isurumuni-vihaara and the Vessagiri-vihaara are important centers of worship to this day. He is also credited with the construction of the Pathamaka-cetiya, the Jambukola-vihaara and the Hatthaalhaka-vihaara, and the refectory.

    Thousands of men and women joined the Order during his reign. The king not only built vihaaras for their residence but also provided them with their requisites. It was not only in the capital city that Buddhism spread in his reign but even in distant regions like Jambukola in the north and Kaajaragaama and Candanagaama in the south.

    The remarkable success of Mahinda’s mission and the rapid spread of the religion in a very short time were mainly due to the efforts of Mahinda and the unbounded patronage of King Devaanampiya Tissa. Apart from them the people of Lanka too were eminently ripe at this period for receiving and adopting the teachings of the Buddha. The people in the land were prosperous, their wants were few, and these were supplied by the fertile soil. There was prosperous trade, for merchants came from all lands to barter goods; their art was well developed, for in the leisure people enjoyed they were able to build cities and tanks, great and small, and to perform works both of utility and artistic value. Contentment reigned supreme. Where such conditions existed the people were ready to embrace new ideals that had the prospect of helping their culture and elating their thoughts and activities, and as such the new doctrine preached by Mahinda Thera fell on a fertile soil, where it soon rose to its full height. Hundreds of thousands of men and women rose to high spiritual attainments on hearing the new message and thus the Law of the Blessed One was firmly established.

    14. The Passing Away of Mahinda and Sanghamittaa   

    Both Mahinda and Sanghamitta survived Devaanampiya Tissa. Mahinda lived to the age of 80 years and Sanghamittaa to the age of 79 years. They spent nearly 48 years in the island. The former died in the eighth year and the latter in the ninth of the reign of King Uttiya, brother and successor of Devaanampiya Tissa. Uttiya performed their funerals with great honor and built stuupas over their relics. The king himself died in the following year, 286 b.e., after a reign of ten years.

    The hierarchy of the disciples was continued in pupilary succession. Arittha Thera succeeded Mahinda Thera; he was in turn succeeded by Isidatta, Kaalasumana, Diighanaama and Diighasumana.

    15. Invasion of Tamils and Restoration of the Saasana by King Dutthagaamani   

    Twenty years after the death of Uttiya foreign usurpers from South India seized Anuraadhapura. Two of them, Sena and Guttika, reigned together for twenty-two years and another Tamil usurper, Elaara, reigned for forty-four years. The lack of interest of these Tamil rulers in the Buddhist faith and the vandalism of their supporters evidently retarded the progress of the religion. Furthermore, the Sinhalese rulers were not free to work for the religion during these periods of political unrest. Nevertheless, the people held strongly to their new religion and showed no signs of laxity.

    It was a young prince from Maagama of the southeastern principality of Ruhuna who restored the lost glory of the Sinhalese and their religion. He was Abhaya, known to posterity by a nickname which means “disobedient,” Dutthagaamani. He was a descendant of Mahaanaaga, who had established himself at Maagama when his older brother Devaanampiya Tissa was ruling at Anuraadhapura. Kaakavanna Tissa and Vihaaramahaadevi were his parents.

    After a thorough preparation for war Dutthagaamani defeated and killed Elaara in battle and became the ruler of Anuraadhapura. Thus the sovereignty of the Sinhalese rulers of Anuraadhapura was once more established.

    Dutthagaamani reigned for twenty-four years. The advancement of the Buddhist religion was his main concern. The Ruvanveli-saaya, the most celebrated stupa in Sri Lanka, was his greatest work. The magnificent edifice of nine storeys and nine hundred chambers, called the Lohapaasaada, “the Brazen Palace,” was constructed by him for the use of the monks. Mirisaveti-daagaba was another of his works.

    Dutthagaamani was not only a supporter of Buddhism but was also a zealous follower himself. Many episodes in the Pali commentaries depict him as a pious monarch. Under his patronage there flourished several learned monks during his reign.

    16. Social and Cultural Development due to Buddhism   

    It is well to find out the social and cultural development of the Sinhalese during the two centuries following their acceptance of the Buddhist religion. We have many incidents and stories in the Sri Lanka chronicles from which a definite idea regarding these conditions can be inferred. For instance, the Rasavaahinii, a Pali work composed in the thirteenth century of the Christian era, contains over a hundred stories of the life of the people during this early period. According to these stories, among the Sinhalese there do not appear to have been any caste divisions. Brahmans are mentioned as living apart in their own villages, and they were more or less counted as foreign to the Sinhalese. The members of the royal families were held in a class by themselves, and those of such families who aspired to the kingdom had to marry a member of a royal family or at least from a Brahman family. The rest of the people were grihapatis (householders with settled abodes).

    The Candaalas (despised) were those without a fixed abode; they were despised on account of being tramps and vagrants with no fixed residence. In some cases the word Candaala was used in a self-deprecatory manner in order to indicate unworthiness. There is the instance of Prince Saali, son of King Dutthagaamani, who fell in love with a village artisan’s daughter, Devi (Asokamaalaa). In addressing the prince she said that she was a Candaali as she did not belong to a family into which a member of the royal family was allowed to marry. The two divisions of people merely appear to be those who had a fixed abode and those who had no fixed abode. There were at this time no special caste divisions for trades or occupations, for a householder or members of a family were, in general, expected to engage themselves in one of the three occupations, as traders, as artisans or as cultivators.

    Prince Dighaabhaya, when appointed as governor of Kasaatota, required attendants and asked each chief family of a village to send one of its sons for service and sent a messenger to Sangha, the chief of the village. The chief called together his seven sons. The elder six asked him to send the youngest to the king’s service as he was idling his time at home without engaging in any work. “We six are engaged in such occupations as trade, industries and cultivation and work hard at our occupations.” Again, in another story, the father, a chief of a village, addressing his daughter regarding her husband, tells her that her husband is living in idleness, and like her brothers should engage himself in an occupation such as cultivation, industry and commerce. Thus it appears all trades were common, and the same family engaged in work as artisans, tradesmen and cultivators without distinction.

    The religion of the Sinhalese during this period was purely and entirely Buddhist and the stories indicate much practical activity in religious affairs, both in endowment and maintenance of religious institutions and the practice of religious principles. The Orders of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis flourished during this period; a very large number of men and women entered the religious Orders. Some of the vihaaras (monasteries) had thousands residing in them. There were also large numbers who were practicing meditation in forests and rock caves. They were well supported by the laity. There were four classes of disciples: the novices (saamanera), bhikkhus (fully ordained), theras (elders) and mahaatheras (chief elders.) There are no Sangharaajas (heads of the entire Sangha) mentioned in any of the stories and no interference by kings or ministers in appointment or in giving ranks to the members of the Order. The affairs of the Sangha were managed by the monks themselves under well established rules of the Vinaya.

    There appear to have been large numbers of disciples who had attained to the state of arahant, i.e., saints who had gained emancipation. In addition practically every man or woman was an upaasaka or upaasikaa, a devotee who regularly performed religious duties. The bhikkhus lived in their vihaaras during the rainy season and at other seasons traveled far and wide in the country, visiting villages, other vihaaras, and as pilgrims worshipping at shrines. Both laymen and bhikkhus are frequently mentioned as going on pilgrimages to Gayaa in India to worship at the sacred Bodhi Tree there. These parties of pilgrims sometimes crossed over to Southern India and walked all the way to Gayaa, taking about six months on the journey; sometimes they went by sea and landed at Taamralipti at the mouth of the Ganges and reached Gayaa in half the time.

    The canonical scriptures had not been committed to writing at this time though writing was known. The bhikkhus learned the Dhamma and many committed to memory the scriptures or parts of them, thus preserving the tradition by frequent rehearsal. That the art of writing was probably introduced to Sri Lanka only after the introduction of Buddhism seems deducible from the circumstance that so far, no pre-Buddhist writing, lithic or other, has been identified. The earliest lithic records date back to the time of King Uttiya, successor of Devaanampiya Tissa.

    The bhikkhus were the instructors of the people. This was practically a duty. The Dhamma was expounded individually on every occasion and sermons to congregations were also held from time to time. There is mention of the periodical expounding of the Dhamma at a temple. Each temple in a district sometimes took its turn once a year to preach the Ariyava.msa Sutta,[6] which was continued each time for seven days; the gatherings on these occasions appear to be very large as in instances mentioned it is said that the crowds were so great that large numbers usually had to stand outside the hall for the whole night and listen to the Dhamma, the audience including bhikkhus and the laity. There is also mention of discourses by lay preachers well versed in the Dhamma employed by the king at halls of preaching.

    It is not clearly stated whether brahmans who lived in brahman villages practiced their own religion. Mention is made of sannyaasis or yogis who practiced asceticism and sometimes lived in cemeteries scantily clad, with bodies covered with ashes, and as the story says, pretending to be saints while at the same time they led sinful lives. There is no mention of brahman temples or places of worship.

    Women had a very high status in society during this period. Practically in every strata of society the position of women showed no distinction from that of men. They freely took part in every activity of life and their influence is well marked. Their character is depicted in most favorable terms; they were gentle, courteous and good natured, hospitable, tender and intelligent, ever ready to help others, to preserve the honor of their families, devoted to religion and country with untrammelled freedom of action. The position of women is further seen from the fact that monogamy was a definite institution. There is no mention of any other form of marriage. Women had freedom to choose their husbands.

    17. Vattagaamani Abhaya   

    After the death of King Dutthagaamani his younger brother Saddhaatissa ruled for eight years and did a great deal for Buddhism. He was succeeded by his sons Thuulatthana, Lanjatissa, Khallaata Naaga and Vattagaamani Abhaya, in succession.

    The period of Vattagaamani Abhaya, also known as Valagambahu, is noteworthy in the history of early Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Five months after his accession to the throne, in 103 BCE a brahman named Tiya (or Tissa) from Ruhuna, South Lanka, revolted against him. At the same time a Tamil army led by seven Tamil chiefs landed at Mahaatittha and waged war against the king. The Tamil army vanquished Tiya and defeated Vattagaamani in battle after which the latter fled and lived in exile for fourteen years.

    These fourteen years of Tamil domination were disastrous to the cause of Buddhism, especially because the country was also ravaged by an unprecedented famine during that period. Food was so scarce during that time that even cases of cannibalism are said to have occurred. Many thousands of monks and laymen died of starvation. The monasteries were deserted. The Mahaavihaara of Anuraadhapura was completely abandoned and the Mahaathuupa was neglected. Trees grew in the courtyards of vihaaras. 12,000 arahants from the Tissamahaaraama and another 12,000 from the Cittalapabbata-vihaara passed away in the forest due to lack of food. While thousands of monks died in the country, many left the country and went to India.

    As a result of the death of most of the learned monks there was even the fear that some parts of the scriptures would be lost. The Mahaaniddesa of the Sutta Pitaka, for instance, was on the verge of being lost, for this text was known by only one monk at that time. The monks, in their earnestness to preserve the teachings of the Buddha, subsisted on roots and leaves of trees and recited the scriptures, lest they should forget them. When they had the strength they sat down and recited and when they could no longer keep their bodies erect they lay down and continued their recitation. Thus they preserved the texts and the commentaries until the misery was over.

    18. The First Schism   

    After Vattagaamani Abhaya regained the throne he demolished the monastery of a nigantha (Jain ascetic) named Giri for having mocked him when he was fleeing. He built a Buddhist monastery called the Abhayagiri-vihaara over it, which he presented to a monk named Kupikkala Mahaa Tissa who had helped the king in his exile. Later, the monks of the Mahaavihaara imposed the punishment of expulsion on Tissa on the charge of improper contact with lay families. Tissa’s pupil Bahalamassu Tissa, who resented the punishment imposed upon his teacher, was likewise expelled from the Mahaavihaara. He then went away with a following of five hundred monks and lived at Abhayagiri-vihaara, refusing to return to the Mahaavihaara. There was thus a group of monks who broke away from the Mahaavihaara and lived separately in the Abhayagiri-vihaara, but they did not yet disagree with each other either in the theory or the practice of the Dhamma.

    The actual schism occurred only when monks of the Vajjiputta sect in India came to Sri Lanka and were received at the Abhayagiri, not long after Tissa and his followers occupied that monastery. Tissa and his followers liked the new monks and adopted their doctrines. Thenceforth they came to be known as the Dhammaruci sect, after the name of the great Indian monk who was the teacher of the newcomers to Abhayagiri. There was no official suppression of the new sect, presumably because the king was in their favor, but the Mahaavihaara monks opposed them as unorthodox and heretical. From this time the Abhayagiri existed as a separate sect opposed to the Mahaavihaara.[7]

    19. Writing of the Sacred Books   

    It is stated in the early chronicles that after the acceptance of Buddhism by the people in Lanka and after the formation of a hierarchy of disciples who were Sinhalese, a council was held under Mahinda Thera, where all the leading theras were present and the teachings were recited and authoritatively laid down, as was done in the third convocation held in India under the direction of Emperor Asoka. Theravaada was thus established in Sri Lanka and according to tradition and custom the various parts of the Tipitaka were learned by the members of the Order, committed to memory, and preserved as oral traditions. It was seen how, during the famine that broke out in the time of King Vattagaamani Abhaya, a great strain was put on the continuance of this form of preserving the teachings of the Tipitaka. When conditions became normal, the members of the Order considered that they could lose the teachings if any similar calamity or calamities were to occur in the future, and they decided that the time had arrived for committing these teachings to writing so that they might be preserved for future generations. The advent of schisms about this time might also have weighed strongly in favor of this decision.

    Thus the members of the Order assembled at the Mahaavihaara at Anuraadhapura, took counsel together, and with the permission and encouragement of the king a convocation was held. The teachings were recited and scribes were engaged to commit to writing, on palm leaves, the Pali canonical texts (the Tipitaka) consisting of Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma, and the Sinhalese commentaries. According to the Nikaaya Sangraha, a Sinhalese work of the fourteenth century dealing with the history of the Buddhist order, after the convocation at the Mahaavihaara at Anuraadhapura, the selected number of reciters and scribes, 500 in all, went to Alulena (Aluvihaara) cave temple close to Matale, in the central province. There in retirement they completed the work assigned to them and thus for the first time brought out in book form the teachings of the Buddha.

    20. The Growth of Dissentient Schools   

    About two centuries after the formation of the Dhammaruci sect at the Abhayagiri-vihaara, in the days of King Vohaarika Tissa (214-36 a.c.), the monks of the Abhayagiri-vihaara adopted the Vaitulyavaada. Thereupon the monks of the Mahaavihaara, having compared it with their own texts, rejected the Vaitulya doctrines as being opposed to traditional doctrine. The king, who had them examined by a learned minister named Kapila, burnt them and suppressed the Vaitulyavaadins.

    Despite the suppression by Vohaarika Tissa, the Vaitulyavaadins began to assert themselves again and a few years later, in the time of King Gothaabhaya (Meghavanna Abhaya, 253-266 a.c.), the Dhammaruci monks of Abhayagiri again accepted Vaitulyavaada. When this happened, about three hundred monks left the Abhayagiri-vihaara to reside at the Dakkhinavihaara, founding a new sect known as Saagaliya. The king, having assembled the bhikkhus of the five great monasteries of the Theriya Nikaaya (Mahaavihaara Nikaaya), had the Vaitulya books examined, ordered the books to be destroyed, and expelled the Vaitulya monks. Sixty of them left for the Chola country in South India.

    The struggle did not end here, for the adherents of the new doctrine were firmly established in South India and they planned to undermine the Mahaavihaara Nikaaya in Sri Lanka. With this object a very learned monk by the name of Sanghamitra came to Sri Lanka and obtained the post of tutor to the king’s two sons. Sanghamitra gained considerable influence over the young pupil, Mahaasena, and was able to instil into him the new doctrine and make him a follower of his views. When Mahaasena ascended the throne, the opportunity looked forward to by the Vaitulyans came. The new king became a great supporter of his tutor and as such persecuted the Mahaavihaara monks. The king, at the instigation of Sanghamitra Thera, ordered that no one should give food to the monks of the Mahaavihaara. The Mahaavihaara, as a result, had to be abandoned for nine years. The supporters of Sanghamitra destroyed the buildings of the Mahaavihaara and carried away their material to construct new buildings for the Abhayagiri-vihaara.

    Two persons, a minister and a queen, came forward this time to suppress Vaitulyavaada and save the Mahaavihaara. The minister, Meghavannaabhaya by name, managed to persuade the king to rebuild the Mahaavihaara. The queen caused Sanghamitra to be put to death and burned the Vaitulya books.

    But the king, who was yet favorable towards the followers of Sanghamitra, built and gave the Jetavana-vihaara to a monk named Tissa. Tissa, who was later charged by the Mahaavihaara monks of a grave offense, was expelled from the Order. The monks of the Sagaliya sect at Dakkhina-vihaara then came to reside in the Jetavana-vihaara. In the reign of Silaakaala (522-35) a Vaitulyan book called the Dharmadhaatu, which was brought to Sri Lanka from India, was kept at the Jetavana-vihaara and venerated. Thus from this time the monks of Jetavana-vihaara too became adherents of Vaitulyavaada.

    In the reign of King Aggabodhi I (575-608) a great monk and teacher named Jotipaala, coming from India, so exposed the fallacies of the Vaitulya doctrines that in his day they fell into disrepute and disappeared from Sri Lanka. Since that time the monks of the Abhayagiri and Jetavana vihaaras who adhered to Vaitulyan doctrines, abandoned their pride and lived in submission to the monks of the Mahaavihaara.

    Intercourse with India was so frequent that from time to time other unorthodox doctrines occasionally found favor with certain monks, but these had no marked effect on the general progress or the stability of the Mahaavihaara Nikaaya.

    For nearly three centuries after the time of Aggabodhi I the chronicles make no mention of the Vaitulyavaada or any other heretical teaching, until in the reign of King Sena I (833-53) a monk of the Vaajraparvata Nikaaya came to Sri Lanka from India and introduced Vaajiriyavaada, converting the king to his doctrines. It was at this time that teachings like the Ratnakuuta-suutra were also introduced to Sri Lanka and another heresy called Nilapata-darsana appeared. Sena II (853-87), who succeeded Sena I, managed to suppress these new doctrines. From his time until the Chola conquest in the early eleventh century there is no mention of any heretical sect in Sri Lanka. However, a survey of the religious monuments of that period clearly shows that their teachings survived side by side with the teachings of the Theravaada.

    21. The Nature of the New Doctrines   

    It is opportune here to enquire about the nature of the new doctrines that were mentioned in the previous chapter as having been introduced into Sri Lanka from time to time since the first century a.c. It was the monks of the Vajjiputra sect in India who were the first to introduce a new teaching. The Vajjiputra sect is mentioned in the Sri Lanka chronicles as one of the groups that parted from the Theriya Nikaaya after the Second Buddhist Council to form a new sect. They thus evidently held some views different from those of the orthodox teachings. Buddhaghosa mentions in the Pali commentaries that the Vajjiputrakas held the view that there is a persistent personal entity, which is opposed to the accepted theory ofanattaa of the Theravaada teachings. They also believed that arahants may fall away from their attainment.

    These followers of the Vajjiputraka doctrines, residing at the Abhayagiri-vihaara, became adherents of the Vaitulya doctrines about two centuries afterwards, and until the beginning of the seventh century Vaitulyavaada became closely associated with Abhayagiri-vihaara and Jetavana-vihaara.

    Like the Vajjiputra sect the Vaitulyavaada is mentioned in the Nikaaya Sangraha as one of the sects that arose in India after the Second Buddhist Council. The Nikaaya Sangraha also states that the Vaitulya Pitaka was composed by heretic brahmans called Vaitulyas who entered the Order in the time of King Asoka to destroy Buddhism. It has been noticed that the terms Vaitulya, Vaipulya and Vaidalya are commonly used as a designation for Mahaayaana suutras and hence the term Vaitulyavaada is used in the Sri Lanka chronicles to denote Mahaayaanism in general without having a particular Buddhist school in view.

    The Vaitulyavaadins were considered even more heretical than the Vajjiputrakas. The Pali commentaries mention some of their heretical views. They held the view that the Buddha, having been born in the Tusita heaven, lived there and never came down to earth and it was only a created form that appeared among men. This created form and nanda, who learned from it, preached the doctrine. They also held that nothing whatever given to the Order bears fruit, for the Sangha, which in the ultimate sense of the term meant only the path and fruitions, does not accept anything. According to them any human pair may enter upon sexual intercourse by mutual consent. The Diipava.msa used the term Vitandavaada in place of Vaitulyavaada and the Pali commentaries mention them as holding unorthodox views regarding the subtle points in the Dhamma, particularly the Abhidhamma.

    Buddhaghosa also refers to the Vaitulyavaadins as Mahaasuññavaadins. The philosophy of the Mahaayaana as expounded by the great Mahaayaana teacher Naagaarjuna was Suunyavaada. Thus the fact that the first appearance of Vaitulyavaada in Sri Lanka took place shortly after Naagaarjuna’s teachings spread in South India, and that Vaitulyavaada is also identified with Suunyavaada of Naagaarjuna, suggests that it was the teaching of Naagaarjuna that was received by the monks of Abhayagiri-vihaara in the days of Vohaarika Tissa.

    The book called Dharmadhaatu, which was brought to Lanka in the reign of Silaakaala, is described in the chronicles as a Vaitulyan book. The monks of the Abhayagiri-vihaara and the Jetavana-vihaara are connected with the honors paid to it. It has become evident that a book named Dharmadhaatu was known and held in high esteem in the tenth century in Lanka and it is quite probable that this book was a Mahaayaanistic treatise dealing with the doctrine of the three bodies of the Buddha found among the teachings of the Mahaayaana.

    Vaajiriyavaada was introduced in the reign of King Sena I by a monk of the Vajraparvata Nikaaya. Scholars have pointed out that the Vaajiriyavaadins are identical with the Vajrayaanists, a school of Buddhism which flourished in eastern India about this time and which was an exponent of the worst phases of Tantrism. The Nikaaya Sangraha describes their writings as “secret teachings” and the Guudhavinaya, i.e., the “secret Vinaya,” is one of the compositions of the Vajrayaanists.

    The Nikaaya Sangraha mentions that about this time the Ratnakuuta-suutra was introduced to Sri Lanka. In the Chinese Canon the second of the seven classes of the Mahaayaana-suutras is called the Ratnakuuta. The Niilapata-darsana, which was also introduced about this time, was also an extreme form of Tantrism. Blue has been a color often favored by Tantrists.

    22. The Sacred Tooth Relic   

    An important event in the early history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka is the arrival of Buddha’s Tooth Relic, the left eye-tooth, from India about 805 b.e. (311 a.c.), during the time of King Sirimeghavanna, son and successor of King Mahaasena. Ever since this Sacred Tooth Relic was received in Sri Lanka it has been a national treasure of great value and a tangible token of the attachment of the Sinhalese to the doctrine of the Blessed Tathaagata. King Sirimeghavanna held a great festival for the Tooth Relic and decreed that it should be brought every year to the Abhayagiri-vihaara and the same ceremonial should be observed. Today it is enshrined in golden caskets in the Temple of the Tooth Relic (Daladaa Maaligaawa) in Kandy, which has become the center of devout pilgrims from all over the island and from Buddhist lands elsewhere.

    Ancient customs and ceremonies are scrupulously kept up, offerings are made daily, and in honor of the Sacred Relic an annual festival lasting fourteen days is held in Kandy every year during August. The Perahera, or procession, on these occasions is conducted by the temple authorities with elephants, lights, music and dancers, and is witnessed by thousands of devotees. Chiefs in full ancient attire accompany the procession. Large tracts of land have been set apart as fees for services at this temple and the tenants of these lands have various services apportioned to them. The exhibition of the Sacred Relic itself takes place at rare intervals when tens of thousands of pilgrims find their way to the Temple to worship and view the Relic. A medieval chronicle, chiefly of the eastern part of the island, mentions the existence of the right eye-tooth and its enshrinement in Somavati Cetiya in pre-Christian times.

    The Sacred Tooth Relic was in the possession of King Guhasiva of Kaalinga before it was brought to Sri Lanka. When he was about to be defeated in battle he entrusted it to his daughter Hemamaalaa: Hemamaalaa with her husband Dantakumaara brought the Sacred Tooth to Lanka and handed it over to King Sirimeghavanna at Anuraadhapura. From this date the Sacred Tooth Relic became the care of the kings of Lanka, who built special temples for it. During the many vicissitudes of the fortunes of the kings of Lanka, the Sacred Relic was conveyed from place to place where the fortunes of the king happened to take him. Replicas of the Sacred Tooth were made at various times and were owned by princes claiming the throne. About the year 1071 King Anawrahta (Anuruddha) of Burma sent various presents to King Vijayabaahu I of Sri Lanka and in return received a duplicate of the Sacred Tooth Relic, which he received with great veneration, and a shrine was built for it in Burma.

    The Portuguese, in one of their expeditions to Sri Lanka, claim to have captured the Sacred Tooth Relic at Jaffna in the year 1560. Jaffna was an outlying port away from the strongholds of Sinhalese kings and the relic said to have been found by the Portuguese in a temple at Jaffna appeared to be one of the several duplicates which had been made at various times. On this question Prof. Rhys Davids wrote in the Academy of September 1874: “Jaffna is an outlying and unimportant part of the Ceylon kingdom, not often under the power of the Sinhalese monarchs, and for some time before this it had been ruled by a petty chieftain; there is no mention of the Tooth brought by Dantakumaara having been taken there — an event so unlikely and of such importance that it would certainly have been mentioned had it really occurred. We have every reason to believe therefore that the very Tooth referred to in the Daañhaava.msa is preserved to this day in Kandy.”

    In 1815 the British occupied Kandy. As usual the Sacred Tooth Relic had been taken to the mountains for security and one of the earliest tasks of the Agent of the British Government in the Kandyan Province was to arrange for the bringing back of the Relic with due ceremony. The houses and streets of Kandy were decorated, the surface of the streets whitened, and the Relic was brought in a magnificent procession. In 1818 there was a rebellion in the Kandyan provinces and the Sacred Tooth Relic was taken away from Kandy and hidden in a forest. After the suppression of the rebellion the British were able to find the Sacred Tooth Relic and bring it back to Kandy. The Sacred Tooth Relic continued to be in the custody of the British Government till 1853, when by order of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, the charge was given over to the Diyawadana Nilame (lay custodian) and the chief monks of Malwatte and Asgiriya monasteries in Kandy.

    23. Buddhaghosa Thera and the Compilation of the Pali Commentaries   

    The compilation of the Pali Atthakathaa (commentaries) by Buddhaghosa Thera is another important event in the annals of Sri Lanka, which marks the progress of Buddhism. As has already been stated, the Pitakas or the teachings of the Buddha which were being handed down orally were committed to writing in 397 b.e. (89 BCE) and the commentaries on these, composed in Sinhalese, were also committed to writing at this time. Since this period much by way of exegetical works in Sinhalese was added from time to time and during the next five hundred years literary activity progressed considerably. By about 896 b.e. (410 a.c.), when King Mahaanaama reigned at Anuraadhapura, the fame of Buddhist literature in Sri Lanka was well recognized throughout India and tradition mentions Sinhalese Buddhist monks visiting India, China and other countries and introducing the literature produced in Sri Lanka. Monks from India and China also visited Anuraadhapura during this time to procure Buddhist books.

    It was about this time that Buddhaghosa Thera came to Sri Lanka in the reign of King Mahaanaama (410-432). Mahaanaama succeeded to the throne 79 years after the death of King Sirimeghavanna, during whose reign the Sacred Tooth Relic was brought to Sri Lanka, and three rulers, namely Jetthatissa II, Buddhadaasa and Upatissa I, reigned in between. The story of Buddhaghosa is given in detail both in the Mahaava.msa and the Sinhalese works composed in later times. According to these sources Buddhaghosa was a brahman youth who was born in the vicinity of Buddha Gayaa and became well known as an exponent of Veda and philosophy. He was such a proficient scholar that in his youth he was able to assert his knowledge among the great scholars of the time. He traveled from place to place, from one seat of learning to another, from one set of teachers to another, triumphantly asserting his knowledge and scholarship.

    At a well-known Buddhist monastery at Tamluk, he met Revata Mahaathera, one well versed in the doctrines and philosophy of Buddhism. There he entered into discussions and found not a peer but one superior to him in knowledge and understanding. This made him join the Order of Buddhist monks as a pupil of Revata Mahaathera. At this vihaara he studied Buddhist philosophy diligently and produced a treatise on Buddhism, aa.nodaya; he also planned to compose commentaries on the Abhidhamma and the suttas. His teacher at this stage advised him to go to Anuraadhapura before undertaking this work, as he said that in Lanka were preserved not only the Tipitaka, the teachings of the Buddha himself, but also the Sinhalese commentaries and various expositions of the teachings which were very valuable and of high repute.

    Buddhaghosa Thera proceeded to Sri Lanka and stayed at the Mahaapadhaanaghara of the Mahaavihaara. He then asked the monks at Anuraadhapura for access to books for the compilation of commentaries. The learned theras at Anuraadhapura tested his knowledge and ability by setting him a thesis on which he compiled the well-known Visuddhimagga. They were so pleased with this work that he was given facilities for his projected work and books were placed at his disposal for the preparation of Pali commmentaries.

    The old Sinhalese commentaries from which Buddhaghosa drew material for the compilation of his Pali commentaries are occasionally named in his works. The Mahaa (or Muula) Atthakathaa occupied the foremost position among them while the Mahaa-paccari Atthakathaa and the Kurundi Atthakathaa were also important. These three major works probably contained exegetical material on all the three Pitakas. Apart from these there were other works like the Sankhepatthakathaa, Vinayatthakathaa, Abhidhammatthakathaa and separate commentaries on the four gamas or Nikaayas, namely, the Diigha Nikaaya Atthakathaa, Majjhima Nikaaya Atthakathaa, Samyutta Nikaaya Atthakathaa, and the Anguttara Nikaaya Atthakathaa. References to numerous other sources like the Andhakatthakathaa, the cariyaa (or Teachers), and the Poraanaa (or Ancient Masters) are also found in Buddhaghosa’s works.

    Utilizing the copious material of these commentaries and other sources, which sometimes contained conflicting views and contradictory assertions, Buddhaghosa compiled his Pali commentaries including all authoritative decisions, sometimes giving his own views but leaving out unnecessary details and repetitions as well as irrelevant matter. The first of such commentaries was the Samantapaasaadikaa on the Vinaya Pitaka. The Kankhaavitaranii on the Paatimokkha of the Vinaya Pitaka was compiled later. These books were followed by the commentaries on the four Nikaayas, the Sumangalavilaasinii on the Diigha Nikaaya, thePapañca-suudanii on the Majjhima Nikaaya, the Saaratthappakaasinii on the Samyutta Nikaaya, and the Manorathapuura.nii on the Anguttara Nikaaya. TheDhammapadaññhakathaa on the Dhammapada, the Jaatakaññhakathaa on the Jaataka, and the Paramatthajotikaa on the Khuddaka Nikaaya, are also ascribed to him. On the books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka, Buddhaghosa compiled the Aññhasaalinii on the Dhammasanganii, the Sammohavinodanii on the Vibhanga, and the Pañcappakara.naññhakathaa on the other five books.

    The voluminous literature which Buddhaghosa produced exists to this day and is the basis for the explanation of many crucial points of Buddhist philosophy which without them would have been unintelligible. His commentaries become all the more important since the old Sinhalese commentaries gradually went out of vogue and were completely lost after the tenth century. Buddhaghosa’s activities gave an impetus to the learning of Pali in Sri Lanka which resulted in the production of many other Pali commentaries and other literary works, and also established the pre-eminence of Sri Lanka as the home of Theravaada Buddhism.

    24. The Pali Chronicles   

    Some time before and after the compilation of the Pali commentaries by Buddhaghosa two important literary works of a different type were produced in Sri Lanka. They are theDiipava.msa and the Mahaava.msa, described in the foregoing pages either as the Sri Lanka chronicles or the Pali chronicles. These two works are the earliest extant literary records giving a continuous history of the activities of the kings of Sri Lanka from pre-Buddhistic times up to the end of the reign of King Mahaasena. Both works are composed in Pali metrical verses.

    The Diipava.msa is the earlier of these two chronicles. It is not a compilation of one individual author but is the outcome of several previous works to which additions have been made from time to time, taking its present form about the fourth century a.c. The chronicle does not name any author but it has been held by some scholars, from the abundant material it contains about nuns, that the Diipava.msa is a work compiled and continued by nuns from time to time.

    The Diipava.msa consists of 22 chapters. They contain accounts of the three visits of the Buddha to Sri Lanka, the ancestry of the Buddha, the three Buddhist councils and the different Buddhist schools which arose after the Second Council, the activities of King Asoka, the colonization of Sri Lanka by Vijaya, his successors, the introduction of Buddhism in the reign of King Devaanampiya Tissa and the activities of his successors, especially Dutthagaamani, Vattagaamani and Mahaasena. The narrative ends with the reign of Mahaasena (276-303).

    The Diipava.msa has obtained its material from different sources of which the SihalaMahaava.msatthakathaa (also called the Sihalatthakathaa or Poraanatthakathaa or merely Atthakathaa) was pre-eminent. Besides this there were several other sources like the Uttaravihaara Mahaava.msa, Vinayatthakathaa and the Dipava.msatthakathaa. By these names were known the records collected and preserved in the Mahaavihaara and the other monasteries.

    The Mahaava.msa, which is the better work in its comprehensiveness, arrangement of facts and high literary standard, was compiled by a thera named Mahaanaama either in the late fifth century or the early sixth century a.c. It also covers the same period of history and its material is drawn from the same sources as the Diipava.msa, but it contains much more additional material presented in a better form.

    The Mahaava.msa contains 37 chapters in all. They deal mainly with the same events as those of the Diipava.msa, but there are much longer accounts and greater details of the activities of several kings such as Pandukaabhaya and Dutthagaamani and events like the establishment of Buddhism and the rise of new schools.

    These two chronicles contain many myths and legends. Yet they are among the primary sources for the reconstruction of the early history of Sri Lanka for they contain a great deal of historical facts, especially in the narratives dealing with the period after the 2nd century BCE, corroborated by epigraphical, archaeological and other evidence.

    The Mahaava.msa has been continued in later times, at three stages, giving a connected history of the island up to modern times. This continuation of the chronicle, which is in three parts, is called the Cuulava.msa. The first part brings the history down to the twelfth century, the second part to the fourteenth century and the third part to modern times.

    25. Political Unrest and the Decline of Buddhism   

    The political situation in Sri Lanka from about the middle of the fifth century a.c. until the third quarter of the eleventh century a.c. was not favorable towards the progress of Buddhism. This period of Sri Lankan history is marked with continuous warfare between the reigning king and his rival claimants or the foreign invaders. Often when the reigning king was defeated in battle he fled to India and came back with a Tamil troop to regain his lost throne, and as a result the Tamils who thus settled down in Sri Lanka from time to time also became an important element even powerful enough to seize political power for themselves.

    Such a political situation evidently did not give the rulers an opportunity to work for the religion and as a result the community and the monasteries were neglected. Some rulers like Aggabodhi III and Daathopatissa I even resorted to the evil practice of robbing monasteries of their gold images, precious gems and other valuables which had accumulated there for centuries, for the purpose of financing their military operations when the royal treasury had become empty. Daathopatissa I also removed the gold finial of the Thuupaaraama and the gem-studded umbrella of the cetiya. Relic chambers of stuupas were opened and valuable offerings were removed. Their Tamil soldiers were allowed to burn down monastic buildings like the Sacred Tooth Relic Temple and take away the valuables. The Pandya and the Chola invaders from South India who also attacked Sri Lanka several times during this period ransacked the monasteries and carried away vast treasures. These conditions necessarily worsened when Sri Lanka passed into the hands of the South Indian Cholas in 1017 and remained a part of the Chola empire until 1070.

    Amidst this political unrest and the resultant religious decline several events important in the history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka occurred. In the reign of Moggallaana I (495-512) the Sacred Hair Relic of the Buddha was brought to Sri Lanka from India and the king placed it in a crystal casket in an image house and held a great festival. The writing of the Mahaava.msaby a Mahaavihaara monk is ascribed to the reign of his successor Kumaara Dhaatusena (512-520). In the reign of Silaakaala (522-535) the Mahaayaana book, the Dharmadhaatu, was brought to Sri Lanka and in the reign of Aggabodhi I (575-608) the monk Jotipaala defeats the Vaitulyavaadins in a public controversy. Apart from these special events several rulers purified the Saasana and repaired the old and neglected monasteries. They also encouraged the recital of Dhamma.

    26. Vijayabaahu I and the Revival of Buddhism   

    In the year 1070 Vijayabaahu I succeeded in defeating the Cholas and becoming the king of Sri Lanka. Residing at Polonnaruwa, which he made the capital of his kingdom, he turned his mind to the noble task of repairing the damage that had been inflicted upon the national religion by the invaders. The great religious edifices, the pirivenas and the monasteries which were in utter destruction were restored and new ones were built. But the greatest of his tasks was the restoration of ordination of monks. When he found that the five ordained monks required to carry out an ordination ceremony could not be found in the whole island, he sent an embassy to his friend and ally, King Anuruddha (i.e., Anawrahta) of Burma, soliciting his help in restoring the Saasana in Sri Lanka. King Anuruddha sent a number of eminent theras who re-established the Saasana in Sri Lanka and instructed a large number of monks in the three Pitakas and the commentaries. The king also brought about a reconciliation of the three Nikaayas of the Mahaavihaara, Abhayagiri and Jetavana and restored their ancient monasteries to them. Thousands of laymen joined the Order.

    The religious revival inaugurated by King Vijayabaahu led to a great intellectual re-awakening and a large number of religious literary works in Pali and Sanskrit were written. King Vijayabaahu also encouraged learned men to come and settle down in Sri Lanka and also induced his courtiers to engage in literary pursuits. These activities suffered temporarily with his death in 1110, but were revived after the accession of Paraakramabaahu the Great in 1153.

    27. Revival of Buddhism under Paraakramabaahu the Great   

    King Paraakramabaahu the Great (1153-1186) ascended the throne after a great struggle with rival claimants and even after his accession he had to suppress many rebellions. Being a great leader of men he was able to restore order and even carry his prowess as a conqueror to foreign lands including South India and Burma. He rebuilt the city of Polonnaruwa. King Paraakramabaahu also undertook the restoration of the ancient capital city of Anuraadhapura which had been neglected and abandoned after the Cholas had captured and devastated it about a century and a half earlier. The four great thuupas were overgrown with trees, and bears and panthers dwelt there. The king restored all the important monuments at Anuraadhapura and the entire Mihintale monastery.

    But the most important task which the king performed for the establishment of the Saasana was its purification and the unification of the Sangha. In spite of the activities of King Vijayabaahu I there were by this time members of Sangha who were unfit to lead the monastic life. Some of the monks are said to have even supported wives and children. With a learned thera named Mahaa Kassapa of Udumbaragiri Vihaara (Dimbulaagala near Polonnaruwa) at its head, the king convened a Council of the leading monks of the dissentient schools and was convinced that the teachings of the Mahaavihaara were correct and their claims were in keeping with the Dhamma. Consequently with great care and patience, the king made investigations into the members of the schismatic schools. Many of the unworthy monks were persuaded to leave the Order and those who were not open to persuasion were expelled. Some monks were made to return to the status of novices. After that the three fraternities of the Mahaavihaara, the Abhayagiri-vihaara and the Jetavana-vihaara remained united.

    Subsequent to this purification of the Sangha the king, with the assistance of the leading monks, proclaimed a code of regulations for the guidance of the bhikkhus. After the proclamation of that code the internal discipline of the Sangha was in the hands of the monks themselves and the king acted only when a necessity arose. The code of regulations enforced by King Paraakramabaahu became a royal proclamation. It gave directions for the proper observance of the Vinaya rules and dealt with the procedure that should be followed by his subjects who had become or who wished to become lay pupils, novices and subsequently ordained monks. The king also caused this proclamation to be engraved on the rock surface of the Uttaraaraama, presently known as Gal-vihaara, which exists to this day. It is now known as Polonnaru-katikaavata or the Paraakramabaahu-katikaavata.

    The great interest taken by the king in the affairs of the religion coupled with internal peace and prosperity brought about a revival of Buddhist learning which created a rich literature during this period.

    28. Compilation of Religious Treatises   

    It has been mentioned earlier that Buddhaghosa Thera compiled the Pali commentaries to many of the texts of the Tipitaka in the early part of the fifth century. Buddhaghosa was, however, not able to compile commentaries to all the books of the Tipitaka due perhaps to the fact that the illness of his teacher Revata in India caused him to leave Sri Lanka before he finished the entire work. Fortunately, there were several other scholars who took up the work left undone by Buddhaghosa, and in the succeeding years they compiled commentaries to the rest of the texts of the Pali Canon.

    Thus the commentator Dhammapaala Thera compiled the commentaries to the Udaana, Itivuttaka, Vimaanavatthu, Petavatthu, Theragaathaa, Theriigaathaa and Cariyaapitaka of the Khuddaka Nikaaya; all these commentaries are known by the name Paramatthadiipanii: Upasena Thera compiled the Saddhammappajjotikaa on the Niddesa. Mahaanama Thera compiled the Saddhammappakaasinii on the Patisambhidaamagga, and Buddhadatta Thera compiled the Madhuratthavilaasinii on the Buddhava.msa. The author of the Visuddhajanavilaasinii, which is the commentary on the Apadaana, is not known. Of these commentators Buddhadatta was a contemporary of Buddhaghosa; Upasena and Mahaanaama flourished about the latter part of the sixth century, and Dhammapaala about the latter part of the tenth century.

    The political disturbances from the time of King Dhaatusena until the reign of Vijayabaahu I greatly hampered literary activities and as a result only a few religious works were composed during this period. About the end of the tenth century, a thera named Khema wrote an expository work on the Abhidhamma, called the Paramatthadiipanii. To the same period belongs also the Pali Mahaabodhiva.msa, which gives primarily the history of the Sacred Bodhi Tree at Anuraadhapura and the ceremonies connected with it. A poem entitledAnaagatava.msa on the future Buddha Metteyya is also ascribed to this period. To the tenth or the early part of the eleventh century belongs a Pali poem of 98 stanzas, called the Telakañaahagaathaa, in the  form of religious exhortations of a great elder named Kalyaaniya Thera, who was condemned to be cast into a cauldron of boiling oil.

    King Vijayabaahu I, in whose reign occurred a great intellectual re-awakening, was himself a great patron of literature and a scholar of high repute. Many Sinhalese works including a Sinhalese translation of the Dhammasanganii are attributed to him but not one of them exists today. About this time a monk named Anuruddha composed the Anuruddhasataka, the Abhidhammattha-sangaha, the Naamaruupa-pariccheda and the Paramattha-vinicchaya. The first is a Buddhist devotional poem of 101 stanzas, in elegant Sanskrit. The second work is a compendium on the teachings of the Abhidhamma and is held in high esteem by all Buddhists of the southern school. The third and fourth are two short works in verse on the Abhidhamma, giving the reader a general idea of the subjects dealt with in the Abhidhamma Pitaka.

    The reign of King Paraakramabaahu the Great ushered in another great epoch of literary activity. Three great scholarly monks flourished in his reign, namely, Mahaa Kassapa of Dimbulaagala Vihaara, Moggallaana Thera and Saariputta Thera. Mahaa Kassapa was the author of a Sinhalese paraphrase (sanne) to the Samantapaasaadikaa, which is now lost. He is also reputed to have written a sub-commentary to the Abhidhammattha-sangaha. It is probable that he was also the author of several other works such as the Mohavicchedanii, which is a treatise on the Abhidhamma, and Vimativinodanii, which is a commentary on the Vinaya. Moggallaana, a contemporary of Mahaa Kassapa, was the author of the Pali grammar,Moggallaana Vyaakara.na. He is also credited with the authorship of theAbhidhaanappadiipikaa, which is the only ancient Pali dictionary in Sri Lanka.

    Saariputta was the most prominent scholar of the reign of Paraakramabaahu the Great. A clever Sanskrit scholar as he was, Saariputta compiled two works on Sanskrit grammar. Another work by him, the Vinayasangaha, was a summary of the Vinaya Pitaka. This work was known by several titles and was widely known in Burma. On this work Saariputta himself wrote a sub-commentary (ñiikaa) and a Sinhalese paraphrase. The most comprehensive and therefore important work of Saariputta is the masterly sub-commentary called theSaaratthadiipanii, which he composed on Buddhaghosa’s commentary on the Vinaya, theSamantapaasaadikaa. The immense and valuable information it contains shows that his knowledge was extensive and profound even as that of the great commentator Buddhaghosa.

    He further wrote a Sinhalese paraphrase to the Abhidhammattha-sangaha of Anuruddha Thera and this paraphrase is still held in high esteem by modern scholars. Saariputta is also credited with the authorship of two other ñiikaas, the Saratthamañjuusaa on theManorathapuura.nii and the Liinatthappakaasinii on the Papañcasuudanii, which are commentaries on the Anguttara and Majjhima Nikaayas, respectively, by Buddhaghosa. To this period also belong the ñiikaas on the other three Nikaayas of the Sutta Pitaka, collectively known as the Saratthamañjuusaa-ñiikaa.

    It should be mentioned here that the ñiikaas named above formed one of the major groups of Pali literature compiled during this period. As described in the Saddhamma-sangaha, a Pali work of the 14th century, Mahaa Kassapa and a large congregation of monks who assembled at the Jetavana Vihaara at Polonnaruwa decided to compose exegetical commentaries since the existing sub-commentaries on the old Atthakathaas were unintelligible. Acting on this decision they compiled ñiikaas, namely, the Saaratthadiipanii on the Vinaya Pitaka, theSaratthamañjuusaa in four parts on the first four Nikaayas of the Sutta Pitaka, and theParamatthadiipanii in three parts on the Abhidhamma Pitaka.

    These ñiikaas or sub-commentaries were works containing expositions of points in the Atthakathaas compiled by Buddhaghosa and other commentators, which needed further elucidation for their correct interpretation. There were ñiikaas compiled from time to time subsequent to the compilation of the commentaries, and what the council headed by Mahaa Kassapa performed was the bringing of these various ñiikaas together and making a synthetic summary of them. Though the Saddhamma-sangaha does not give any prominence to the part played by Saariputta at this council, it is well known that several ñiikaas were compiled either by him or under his supervision.

    Several religious works written in Sinhalese also belong to this period. The Sinhalese exegetical works on which the Pali commentaries were based were preserved in the Mahaavihaara as late as the tenth century. Likewise there were the collections of Jaataka stories and the stories connected with the verses of the Dhammapada, in the Sinhalese language. A collection of stories from which the Pali Rasavaahinii drew material and a work called the Siihalaññhakathaa Mahaava.msa, on which the Pali chronicles were based, also existed in Sinhalese. None of these works is now extant. Several Sinhalese religio-literary works which were composed in or about the twelfth century are popular even today. Among them are the Sasadaavata, which is a poem on the Sasa Jaataka; the Muvadevdaavata, which is a poem on the Makhaadeva Jaataka; and the Kavsilumina, which is a poem on Kusa Jaataka. Gurulugomi’s Amaavatura and Dharmapradiipikaava and Vidyaacakravarti’sButsara.na are also generally ascribed to the twelfth century.

    29. Decline of Buddhism after Paraakramabaahu I and Restoration by Paraakramabaahu II   

    After the death of Paraakramabaahu the Great there was much internal disturbance in the country caused by rival claimants to the throne and invasions by foreigners. As a result Buddhism was on the decline again. Paraakramabaahu’s immediate successor, Vijayabaahu II, promoted trade and religious relations between Burma and Sri Lanka but was slain after a year’s rule by a usurper. The usurper was, however, slain five days later by Nissankamalla, who thereafter reigned for nine years (1187-96). Nissankamalla was a great benefactor of Buddhism. He built several notable religious edifices in Polonnaruwa, his capital. Some of these, like the Ruvanveli-daagaba (now called Rankot-vehera), the beautiful Vatadaa-ge, the Sacred Tooth Relic Temple (Hetadaage), and the Nissankalataa-mandapa exist to this day. He made occasional tours in his kingdom, visiting places of religious significance like the Sumanakuuta (Sri Paada, or as called by the English, Adam’s Peak) and the Dambulu-vihaara. He built alms-houses at several important places and purified the Saasana by expelling corrupt bhikkhus from the Order.

    The period of two decades that followed the death of King Nissankamalla was one of the most disturbed periods in Sri Lanka, during which time occurred several assassinations of rulers and invasions by foreigners. In 1214 a foreigner named Megha invaded, defeated the Sinhalese ruler and reigned for 36 years (1215-51). His reign was one of the most disastrous for Buddhism, for he plundered the monasteries and made them over to his soldiers to dwell in. The people were persecuted by torture and were forced to adopt a different faith. He also destroyed libraries containing many valuable books. The situation was temporarily saved by Paraakramabaahu II, who ruled from Dambadeniya from 1236 while Maagha was still dominating north Lanka. Paraakramabaahu II, who was a ruler of great learning, earned for himself the title Kalikaala Sahitya Sarvajña Pandita. He made efforts to restore the Saasana by bringing over monks from the Chola country in South India and holding a festival to admit monks to the higher ordination. He established several monasteries and pirivenas and encouraged learning. The king also held a great council of monks under the leadership of the great thera Aranyaka Medhankara and purified the Saasana. Subsequently, like Paraakramabaahu I, he formulated rules for the proper conduct of the monks, the code of these rules being known by the name Dambadeni Katikaavata. At Palaabatgala he constructed a great monastery for the hermit-monks who were full of virtue and were able to undergo strict austerities. Two succeeding kings, Vijayabaahu IV (1270-72) and Paraakramabaahu III (1287-93), took much interest in maintaining Buddhism and consolidating the efforts of their predecessor.

    30. The Literary Revival   

    The religious revival brought about by Paraakramabaahu II continued until about the fifteenth century, though there was not much political stability in the country during that period. The outstanding feature of the period is the compilation of a large number of religio-literary works. Paraakramabaahu II himself obtained teachers from India to teach Lankan monks. He persuaded his younger brother Bhuvanekabaahu to become a scholar and be a teacher to many thousands of elders. The king’s minister Devapatiraaja was a great patron of learning. To Paraakramabaahu II is ascribed the authorship of the Sinhalese translations to theVisuddhimagga and the Vinaya Vinicchaya, the Sinhalese poem Kavsilumi.na, the masterpiece of Sinhalese poetry, based on the Kusa Jaataka, and the Sinhalese prose workDaladaa-sirita. In the reign of Paraakramabaahu II lived the thera Dharmakirti who was the author of the Pali poem Daathaava.msa and the first part of the Cuutava.msa.

    The Thuupava.msa on the erection of stuupas in Lanka, the Hattha-vanagalla-vihaara-va.msa on the history of the ancient vihaara at Attanagalla, the Rasavaahinii which is a collection of stories about ancient India and Sri Lanka, the Samantakuuta-va.n.nanaa on the Buddha’s visit to Sumanakuuta (Adam’s Peak), the Kesadhaatuvamsa on the history of the hair-relics of the Buddha, the Paarami-mahaasataka on the ten perfections (paraamitaa), theSaddhamma-Sangha which gives an account of the history and development of Buddhism in Lanka, are several of the religious works of merit composed in Pali from the time of Paraakramabaahu II until the fifteenth century.

    A large number of Sinhalese works on religious subjects too belongs to this period. TheSaddharmaratnaavalii, which narrates the stories of the Pali Dhammapadatthakathaa in Sinhalese, the Puujavalii which relates the honor and offerings received by the Buddha, thePansiya-panas-jaataka based on the Pali Jaataka commentary, the Sinhala Bodhiva.msa on the history of the Bodhi Tree, the Elu-Attanagaluva.msa which is a translation of the Pali work, the Saddharmaalankaara, based on the Pali Rasavaahinii, the Guttilakaavyaya based on the Guttila Jaataka, the Kaavyasekharaya, based on the Sattubhatta Jaataka, theBudugu.naalankaaraya, which narrates the dispelling of the calamity in Vesaali by the Buddha, and the Loveda-sangaraava, containing religious instructions for the laity, are the standard works among them.

    31. Embassy from Burma to Obtain Ordination   

    As a result of this religious revival, the reputation of the Sangha in Sri Lanka became so well established that in the year 1476 King Dhammaceti of Burma decided to send twenty-two selected bhikkhus to Lanka to obtain ordination and bring back to Burma the traditions of Lanka. He sent these bhikkhus with numerous presents in charge of two ministers, Citraduuta and Raamaduuta. They came in two ships. The first ship with eleven bhikkhus and their attendants, in charge of the minister Citraduuta, arrived in Colombo and the other ship in charge of Raamaduuta with eleven bhikkhus and attendants arrived at Weligama on the southern coast of Lanka. These deputations were received with due ceremony and given a cordial reception by King Buvanekabaahu VI (1470-78), who reigned at Kotte (Jayawardhanapura), six miles from Colombo.

    The king of Burma sent the following message to the chief theras of Lanka: “My Lords, I am sending many articles to be offered to the Sacred Tooth Relic, etc. and I request you to make an endeavor to offer these to the Sacred Tooth Relic. May the noble ones obtain facilities for the twenty-two bhikkhus and their pupils and the two ministers, Citraduuta and Raamaduuta, who are attending on these bhikkhus to assist them in worshiping, honoring and viewing the Sacred Tooth Relic if they are so fortunate as to get an opportunity to do so; after which may the Noble Ones be pleased with their endeavor to enable the twenty-two bhikkhus and their pupils to be ordained in the community of succession from Mahaavihaara fraternity founded by the great thera Mahinda by selecting such bhikkhus who hold an established high reputation and giving the ordination of Upasampadaa in the Siimaa (ordination hall) in the river Kalyaani, which has been made sacred by its association with our Great Lord.”

    The request made by the king of Burma was duly granted, the bhikkhus were ordained in the Siimaa in the Kalyaani River. The minister Raamaduuta with twenty bhikkhus and thirty-three pupils, duly ordained, returned to Burma. The other minister, Citraduuta, and his party of bhikkhus were shipwrecked and six of these bhikkhus met with their death. The remaining ones reached their country.

    32. Establishment of Mahaavihaarava.msa in Burma   

    In Burma King Dhammaceti built an ordination hall, known as Kalyaani Siimaa, and the bhikkhus ordained there went by the name of Kalyaaniva.msa. At a later period ordination of this Nikaaya was carried to Siam from Burma. The connection with Burma at this period has an important bearing on the fortunes of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, for through these embassies the books that existed in Lanka were taken to Burma, Siam and Cambodia and the Mahaavihaara Nikaaya was established in these countries. This helped Lanka to reobtain the books and the ordination at a subsequent period, when ordination had disappeared in the island and the books were lost.

    33. The Arrival of the Portuguese and the Persecution of Buddhism   

    The political stability that was maintained by Paraakramabaahu II and his successors until about the fifteenth century began to weaken by the end of that century. At this time the Sinhalese king who ruled at Kotte was the head of a very small territory. The interior regions of the country were in the hands of several petty chiefs who did not care about the religion or the welfare of the people. The Moors on the other hand controlled the trade of the coastal regions. Economically too the country had sunk to such a very low level that by this time Sri Lanka had become dependent on India even for food.

    Such was the condition when the Portuguese, who were engaged in discoveries and conquests in the East and were in pursuit of Eastern trade, landed in Lanka in 1505, when Vira Paraakramabaahu VIII (1484-1508) was ruling at Kotte. The Portuguese promised him military aid against his rivals and great riches from the trade which they proposed to establish. They then gained a foothold in Lanka by erecting a fortress on the rocky beach in Colombo and establishing many trading settlements. Before long the entire coastal region passed into the hands of the Portuguese and the kings of Kotte were entirely at the mercy of their allies. They even made several assaults on the interior of the country in order to become masters of the whole island.

    The Portuguese arrived in Colombo in 1505 and, gradually occupying all maritime provinces, remained in their possession up to 1658. The Lanka chronicles as well as the records of their friendly historians describe them as cruel, inhuman, rapacious, bigoted and savage persecutors of Buddhism in their endeavor to impose their own faith — Roman Catholicism — on the people of Sri Lanka.

    A few decades after the arrival of the Portuguese, King Bhuvanekabaahu VI (1534-1551), who ruled at Kotte, sought the assistance of his allies, the Portuguese, to ensure the succession of his grandson Dharmapaala to the throne. For this purpose an ivory image of Dharmapaala was sent to Portugal where a coronation of the effigy was held by the Portuguese emperor. When the Sinhalese ambassadors returned they were accompanied by a party of Franciscans who, under the direction of the Portuguese emperor and with the permission of the king of Kotte, preached the Christian Gospel in Lanka. Thus for the first time Christian communities were organized in the maritime provinces of Lanka. Dharmapaala, who had become a baptized Christian under the name of Don Juan Dharmapaala, as an expression of thankfulness to the Portuguese gave them a deed of gift (sannas) after his accession, transferring to them the Daladaa Maaligaawa (i.e., the Temple of the Tooth), the temple at Kelaniya and all the temple revenues in the island for the maintenance of the missionary establishments.

    Thus there was the necessary assistance given to the Portuguese by the rulers of Kotte to suppress the national religion of the Sinhalese and propagate their own religion — Catholicism. With this support they set about their task. In their conversions they adopted two distinct methods, namely, inducement by offices and other temporal favors, and brutal punishment where inducement failed. People who wished to obtain high offices under them and who wished to earn the goodwill of those in power readily adopted the new faith and took up new Biblical names. Others who hesitated to give up their national faith and showed resistance were brutally punished.

    There are lurid accounts of men thrown into rivers to be eaten by crocodiles, babies spitted on the soldiers’ pikes and held up before the parents, or crushed between millstones before the eyes of their mothers who later were to be tortured to death. Those who dared to worship in public or wear the yellow robe were put to death. Buddhist monasteries and institutions were destroyed and their treasures looted. Libraries were set on fire. Thus did the period of Portuguese rule become one of the darkest periods of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

    34. Persecution of Buddhism by Raajasinha I   

    The Portuguese were not the only enemies of Buddhism at this period. King Raajasinha I (1581-1592), who was the son of Mayaadunne, a brother of Bhuvenekabaahu VI, ruled from Sitawaka when the Portuguese were holding power at Kotte. A gallant leader as he was, Raajasinha succeeded in gaining the confidence of the Sinhalese who opposed the Portuguese rule and winning several battles against the Portuguese, the battle at Mulleriyaawa being the most famous. But, as the chronicles mention, his popularity was shortlived. The foolish king, in his thirst for power, slew his old father with his own hands. Later, being seized with the fear of his crime, Raajasinha sought the advice of the monks for setting himself free from the sin. When the monks explained to him that it was too great a crime to be absolved, the king was provoked to anger.

    He then became a follower of the Saivites, in whose advice he took refuge, and became an enemy of Buddhism. The chief Buddhist elder was stoned to death, and many other monks were buried neck-deep in the earth and their heads plowed off. Some others were put to the sword. The sacred edifices and the monasteries were pulled down, and the sacred books were reduced to ashes. The lands which had been endowed in earlier times to the monastic establishments were taken away and Sri Paada, the Sacred Footprint of the Buddha on Adam’s Peak, was handed over to the Saivites. Those monks who managed to escape from the king’s wrath disrobed themselves and fled.

    35. Vimala Dharmasuriya’s Attempt at Restoring Buddhism   

    In 1592, the year in which Raajasinha died, a Sinhalese ruler, Vimala Dharmasuriya I, ascended the throne of the hill capital, Kandy, and ruled for twelve years. Though he had been educated by the Portuguese and was originally favored by them, the king soon after his accession turned against them out of his love for the country and the religion.

    Vimala Dharmasuriya I was a great patron of Buddhism of that time. After his wars with the Portuguese he set his heart on repairing the damage done by Raajasinha. Several Buddhist monuments were restored. Finding that there was hardly a single monk left in the country who was properly ordained, Vimala Dharmasuriya sent an embassy to the country of Arakan (now part of Burma) to obtain monks to restore ordination in Sri Lanka. The mission was successful; several monks led by the elders Nandicakka and Candavisaala came to Kandy and in the year 1597 an ordination ceremony was held in the Udakukkhepa Siimaa at Getambe, near Kandy, many men of noble families entering the Order on this occasion. The king also built a storeyed pavilion and, bringing back the Sacred Tooth Relic from the Delgamuvihaara where it was hidden, deposited it in the pavilion. The control of Sri Paada was taken from the Saivites and handed over to the Buddhist monks.

    36. Successors of Vimala Dharmasuriya I and the Arrival of the Dutch in Sri Lanka   

    Vimala Dharmasuriya was succeeded on the throne of Kandy by Senarat, a man zealous in religious works. In his reign the Portuguese invaded Kandy and the king carried away the Sacred Tooth Relic to Mahiyangana for safety. Senarat’s son and successor Raajasinha II (1634-1687) was a great warrior but was not zealous. In his reign ended the Portuguese rule in the maritime provinces of Lanka, a feat which the king accomplished with the aid of the Dutch in June 1658.

    It was as early as 1602 that the Dutch visited the court of Kandy, in the reign of Vimala Dharmasuriya I, seeking an alliance. In 1612 a treaty was agreed upon between the Dutch and King Senarat, the then king of Kandy, and in accordance with this agreement, in 1638 Raajasinha II sought Dutch assistance against the Portuguese. From that time the two European nations fought each other until in 1658 the Portuguese were expelled from the country and the Dutch came to occupy those regions which formerly were occupied by the Portuguese. They remained in possession until 1796, in which year they were ousted by the British.

    The Dutch, whose religion was Protestant Christianity, followed a policy which was in marked contrast to that of the Portuguese. Extension of commerce was their main concern and since peace was essential to achieve this end, they even endured with subdued humbleness and patience whatever insult and provocation came from the Sinhalese. They even assisted the Sinhalese in two embassies to Siam which were sent to obtain monks to establish higher ordination in Sri Lanka.

    The Dutch, however, had an established system of education throughout their territories. The school building was both church and school, the schoolmaster was both teacher and representative of the religion. Services were held regularly at these places; births and marriages were registered according to Christian rites. When the agent of the Church was so disposed, he was able to get those who did not attend church punished for the alleged offense. All civil rights and inheritance depended on a person’s church affiliation. No person who was not a Christian could hold even a minor office under government, no person who was not a Christian could get married legally or register the birth of a child.

    There was, however, one redeeming feature of this system. The organization was so extensive that they had to employ Sinhalese as their teachers and agents of religion. The vast majority of these Protestant agents were at heart Buddhists; they were Christians only in the sense of their office. The people themselves followed this plan: they were Buddhists inwardly but were officially Christians, for the purpose of registering their marriages, the births of their children, for holding office, etc. Thus the efforts of the Dutch in the propagation of their religion did not affect Buddhism much. On the other hand the Portuguese, where they had priests and where they had established churches under the direct control of these priests, were able to look after the congregations and gradually established their religion in such centers. Most of them were zealous and earnest in their duties and took a genuine interest in the welfare of their flocks.

    37. Vimala Dharmasuriya II and his Successors   

    When the Dutch were occupying the maritime provinces, several Sinhalese rulers of the Kandyan kingdom made attempts to restore Buddhism. One of them was Vimala Dharmasuriya II (1687-1706), son and successor of Raajasinha II. He constructed a three-storeyed pavilion for the Sacred Tooth Relic. The king also made a pilgrimage to Sumanakuuta (Adam’s Peak) on foot. Seeing that the state of the Order of monks was unsatisfactory again to such an extent that not more than five ordained monks were found in the whole country, the king sent an embassy to Arakan and obtained monks for an ordination ceremony. With the help of these monks an ordination ceremony was held at Getambe, at the place where a similar ceremony had been held formerly in the reign of Vimala Dharmasuriya I. At this ceremony thirty-three novices were given higher ordination and another one hundred and twenty persons were admitted to the Order.

    Vimala Dharmasuriya II was succeeded by his son Sri Viraparaakrama Narendrasinha (1706-1739), a just ruler, mindful of the welfare of the religion. He constructed a two-storeyed building for the Sacred Tooth Relic, provided the monks with their requisites, and induced several members of the laity to enter the Order. However, during his reign many a monk had resorted to scandalous practices.

    His successor Sri Vijaya Raajasinha (1739-1747), also a pious ruler, induced many a young person to join the Order and also held several religious festivals. He spent money on getting religious books written, caused preaching halls to be constructed at several places, and took measures to educate the people in the doctrine. Discovering that the Order of the Sangha was almost extinct in the island, he sent two missions to Siam, with the help of the Dutch who lent a ship for the voyage. The first expedition proved disastrous due to shipwreck, and before the second mission returned the king died. Thus his attempt to restore higher ordination failed.

    38. The Reign of Kirti Sri Raajasinha   

    Sri Vijaya Raajasinha was succeeded by King Kirti Sri Raajasinha, whose reign proved to be one of the most inspiring periods for Buddhism in that century. At the time of his accession the Order of monks had sunk to very low levels of degeneracy. There was not a single monk in the whole island who had received the higher ordination. There were plenty of novices (i.e., saamaneras), but apart from a few skillful and pious ones among them the majority were leading a life unbecoming to monks. They set aside the study of Dhamma and Vinaya and resorted to the study of astrology, medicine and devil worship, led scandalous lives and engaged in cultivation of land and in trade. The older saamaneras ordained only the sons of their relatives so that they could obtain the immense wealth which the generations of kings and ministers had dedicated to the service of the Order.

    Kirti Sri Raajasinha was determined to set right this state of affairs. With the aid of the Dutch who gave a vessel for the voyage, the king sent an embassy to King Dhammika of Siam and re-established the higher ordination in Sri Lanka. Several hundreds were ordained and education was fostered. The king also proclaimed a code of conduct (katikaavata) for the guidance of the monks.

    39. Velivita Sri Saranankara   

    In all these religious activities of King Kirti Sri Raajasinha he was inspired and guided by a great personality, a saamanera who was distinguished for his piety, enthusiasm, learning and determination. He was Velivita Pindapaatika Sri Saranankara. Born in 1698 at Velivita, a village near Kandy, he became a novice at the age of sixteen as a pupil of an elder saamanera called Suuriyagoda. With great effort and devotion he studied the Pali language and the doctrine, for which purpose he traveled from place to place in search of books and tutors. Later he went about preaching the Dhamma, thus encouraging others to rise up for the welfare of the religion. These activities of Saranankara Saamanera soon made him popular as a teacher of great renown who devoted his life to his own welfare and that of others, a poet, preacher and controversialist.

    Apart from his skill as a scholar he was also known for his austere practices. When he went round the country learning or preaching, he depended for his sustenance on the ancient practice of a bhikkhu, called pi.n.napaata, gathering his food from house to house in his almsbowl. For this he became known as Pindapaatika Saranankara. When King Vimala Dharmasuriya II reigned he was a saamanera, but his sincere devotion had pleased the king so much that he made a gilt casket set with seven hundred gems and presented it to Saranankara Saamanera, with many books. This king also provided the monk with the requisites and induced him to write several literary works.

    When King Sri Vijaya Raajasinha came to the throne it was at the request of Saranankara Saamanera that the king sent two embassies to Siam. In the reign of King Kirti Sri Raajasinha, Saranankara Saamanera offered his fullest cooperation in his activities in the revival of Buddhism and the king depended upon the saamanera for guidance, advice and inspiration. He urged the king to send the embassy to Siam and himself wrote the messages that were taken to the Siamese king and the Sangharaaja of that country. The king’s ministers who constituted the embassy were chosen on his advice and this mission was successful mainly due to his exertions. After the return of the embassy Saranankara Saamanera was given higher ordination and was appointed Sangharaaja of Sri Lanka, the highest office conferred on a monk.

    The activities of Saranankara Thera not only restored the higher ordination and the purity of the Sangha but also brought about a literary revival as a result of the impetus given by him to the study of the Pali language and the Buddha’s teachings.

    Saranankara Thera himself compiled several important religious works such as theMunigu.naalankaara, a Sinhalese poem in praise of the Buddha, the Saaraartha Sangraha, a treatise on various doctrinal teachings in Buddhism. Abhisambodhi-alankaara, a Pali poem in a hundred stanzas on the life of the Buddha from the time of Dipankara up to his enlightenment, the Madhuraartha Prakaasanii, which is a Sinhalese commentarial paraphrase to the Pali Mahaabodhiva.msa, and the Ruupamaalaa, a work on Pali grammar. Several others who were pupils of Saranankara Thera also composed many literary works. The great monk died in 1778 a.c. at the age of 81.

    The successors of Sri Saranankara Thera are known as belonging to the Syaamopaali Nikaaya, now popularly called the Siyam (Syaama) Nikaaya. Only those who belonged to what was regarded as the highest caste could obtain higher ordination in that Nikaaya. In the year 1799 a saamanera named Ambagahapitiya aanavimalatissa, who did not belong to that caste, went to Amarapura in Burma to obtain higher ordination and on his return he established the Amarapura Nikaaya in 1803. Subsequently, in 1863 Ambagahawatte Sri Saranankara Thera established the Raamañña Nikaaya. These three Nikaayas exist up to this day, with no doctrinal differences between them.

    40. The Arrival of the British and the End of Sinhalese Rule in Sri Lanka   

    King Kirti Sri Raajasinha, whose reign, as was seen above, was one of the most fruitful for the cause of Buddhism, was succeeded by his brother Raajaadhi Raajasinha. A scholar of Pali, Sanskrit and Sinhalese as he was, the king himself composed the beautiful Sinhalese poem Asadisa-daa-kava and worked for the religion by taking necessary steps to preserve the purity of the Saasana. His nephew, Sri Vikrama Raajasinha, was the next and last king of Lanka. This ruler, who was in constant fear of the intrigues of his Adigar Pilima Talawe and his allies, had recourse to intoxicating drinks, hoping thus to forget his sorrows, and tortured all his enemies with appalling cruelty. There was general unrest in the kingdom and these conditions were evidently not conducive to the progress of Buddhism.

    It was in 1796, during the reign of Raajaadhi Raajasinha, that the Dutch, who were defeated in battle, surrendered their territories to the British colony and Sir Frederick North was sent as the first British governor.

    Before long North realized that the opportunity would come soon for them to possess the whole island, for Pilima Talawe, the Adigar of King Sri Vikrama Raajasinha of Kandy, disclosed his plans to ruin the king to the British governor himself. However, this plan of Pilima Talawe was revealed to the king, and the Adigar was beheaded in 1812. Ehelepola, who became the next Adigar, was detected in an attempt to organize a general rebellion against the king, and as punishment, the king tortured his wife and children cruelly. Subsequently the king punished all whom he suspected and as a result, unrest and disorder became the order of the day.

    In these circumstances, Ehelepola appealed to the British for help. In January 1815 a British army marched to the capital city of Kandy and took the Sinhalese king captive. On the 2nd of March 1815, at a solemn assembly of the Kandyan chiefs and the monks, the king was deposed and his dominions were vested in the British Crown. Thus ended the glamour of the Kingdom of Kandy which had withstood the invasions and attacks of the Portuguese and the Dutch and for some time the English. Thus ended too the line of the Buddhist kings of Lanka who for 2301 years, from the accession of Vijaya in 486 BCE, brought glory and fame to their country and religion.

    41. The British Attitude towards Buddhism   

    It was seen in the previous chapter how the British occupied the low-country of Lanka in 1796 and the Kandyan territories in 1815. These territories remained in their hands until 1948, in which year Sri Lanka regained her independence.

    Mention has already been made of the solemn assembly of the 2nd of March 1815 held in Kandy. At this assembly a treaty was signed between the British rulers and the Kandyan chiefs, by which the chiefs handed over the country to the British and the British promised to safeguard Buddhism, declaring its rites and ceremonies sacred and inviolate.

    The inclusion of this clause referring to Buddhism in the very treaty by which the chiefs handed over the country to the British is very significant. On the one hand, it indicates how concerned the Sinhalese leaders were about the future of Buddhism even in the hour of their misfortune. On the other hand, the British had obviously considered that its omission would bring disastrous results.

    However, the British attitude towards Buddhism soon caused dissatisfaction among the Sinhalese chiefs. The chiefs and the Buddhist monks realized that the British had no desire to respect the clause of the treaty relating to Buddhism, and that they were keen to convert the people to their own faith.

    During the early years after the signing of the treaty the British governor took part in the annual ceremonies connected with the Sacred Tooth Relic and appointed the chief theras, as had been done by the Sinhalese kings in former times. This created resentment on the part of the Christian missionaries in Sri Lanka and the Christian authorities in England, and soon both practices were dropped, severing whatever connection they had with Buddhism. From 1847 the bhikkhus were required to elect and appoint their own chiefs and in 1853 the British government handed over the Tooth Relic from their custody to the Diyawadana Nilame and the chief monks of the Malwatte and the Asgiriya monasteries.

    While thus violating the treaty of 1815 the British rulers even prohibited the Buddhists from enjoying some of the privileges that were granted to the followers of the Christian faith. Thus, for instance, even as late as 1805 no child could be legally registered without previous baptism by a Christian minister, and the clergy did not solemnize the marriage of unbaptized individuals. Further, only those who adopted the Christian faith were favored with government employment. This attitude of the British made vast numbers of Buddhists adopt the new faith without any understanding of its teachings. These people saw in Christianity “not only happiness in the world which is to come, but, what was more important to them, the promise of this life as well!”

    Some of the British governors in their attempt to disrupt the Buddhist organization even tried to bring about disunity between the monks and the laity and also to win over some of the leading Buddhist monks to their side. For they realized that the monks were the main obstacle to their conversions and that as long as the monks and the laity remained united their attempts would not meet with great success.

    Lastly, the British rulers gave all possible support to the Christian missionaries to carry out their educational and missionary activities. How these missionary bodies attempted the Christianization of Lanka will be discussed in the next chapter.

    42. The Christian Missionary Activities   

    From the beginning of the period of British rule several Christian missionary bodies engaged themselves actively in missionary activities in Sri Lanka. The Baptists had already started their activities in 1792. They were followed by the Wesleyan Methodists in 1814, the Americans in 1816, and the Church of England in 1818. These missionary bodies received every encouragement and assistance from the government.

    The establishment of missionary schools in various parts of the island was one of the principal undertakings of these missionary bodies. These schools were manned and managed by the missionary societies with the assistance of the British government and were partly financed by public funds. The schools attracted large numbers of Buddhist children because they were the centers where young men were trained for high government offices. Hitherto the temple had been the village school and the monks were the instructors of the village children in secular learning as well as in spiritual wisdom. But under the British government temple education could not provide the learning necessary for government employment. Thus the Buddhist parents who wished to see their children in high government offices willingly sent them to the new missionary schools.

    In these schools the children were molded according to the requirements of the missionary bodies. The authorities did not insist that one should become a Christian before admission, but each student was required to learn the Christian religion and to participate in the morning and evening religious services in the school. They had no opportunity of participating in their own religious observances. Almost every school had its own church. The lessons imparted to these children were arranged with a view to undermining their Buddhist religion. The teaching of the Buddha was criticized and condemned and the Buddhist practices were ridiculed. Buddhism was held up as a religion of the vulgar masses as opposed to the Christianity of civilized people.

    This disparagement in course of time naturally had its expected result. People gradually began to give up their national faith for the new faith which they were trained to think of as more refined and cultured. It now became the fashion to adopt the Christian faith and Christian names and customs. Even those who did not embrace Christianity became indifferent to their own religion. When they grew up they did not even mind their conversion to any religion.

    The missionaries also did not neglect the education of the girls. Convents were opened up with boarding facilities and in them the girls were brought up and educated with the utmost care until they were married in due time, with the sanction of the Christian guardians.

    The following table enumerating the assisted schools in Sri Lanka in 1886 belonging to the different denominations shows the extent of missionary activities in Lanka in the sphere of education:

    NUMBER OF ASSISTED SCHOOLS IN 1886

    English

    Bi-lingual

    Vernacular

    Total

    Wesley Miss.

    18

    18

    170

    206

    Rom. Cath.

    25

    5

    175

    205

    C.M.S.

    28

    18

    178

    224

    Amer. Miss

    8

    9

    116

    133

    Baptist

    1

    5

    32

    38

    Private

    7

    5

    13

    25

    Hindu

    0

    0

    5

    5

    Buddhist

    0

    1

    11

    12

    Apart from the Christianization carried out through schools these missionary bodies sought conversion by distributing books and pamphlets which criticized and ridiculed the Buddhist religion and sang the praises of Christianity. For this purpose the missionaries themselves studied the doctrines of Buddhism and the Buddhist literature and also the Sinhalese language, thus enabling them to write tracts in Sinhalese attacking the Buddhist religion and extolling the virtues of Christianity. Christian preachers went about from village to village distributing these books and pamphlets and denouncing Buddhism and exhibiting the supremacy and the divine origin of Christianity.

    43. Mohottiwatte Gunaananda Thera and the Buddhist Re-awakening   

    When the Christian missionaries were thus active in towns and villages propagating their gospel and converting the Buddhists to their faith, the Buddhist monks were not able enough to offer much resistance. When the villagers assembled in the temple on Poya (uposatha) days, they attempted to refute the arguments of the Christian preachers in the course of their sermons, but this method was not very effective.

    It was at this time, about 1860, that a young Buddhist saamanera named Mohottiwatte Gunaananda appeared on the scene and challenged the Christian missionaries to meet him in open-debate. This young novice had obtained his early education in Christian schools and had thus studied the Christian scriptures and was also well versed in the Buddha’s teachings. He went from village to village making public speeches and held meetings in several Christian strongholds, often challenging the Christian clergy to face him in open debate. Soon he earned a great reputation for his eloquence and people flocked in thousands to hear him.

    The Christian clergy at first took no notice of the challenge of this monk, but later, quite confident of their success they accepted the challenge. This resulted in three public controversies, one at Udanvita in 1866, another at Gampola in 1871 and the last at Panadura in 1873.

    The Panadura controversy, which lasted for a week, was the most important of them all. It was the culmination of his efforts and it led to a Buddhist reawakening. The controversy was to take place in the presence of leading Sinhalese Christians and Buddhists. Rules were laid down so that the meeting could be held in a fair manner. The leading English newspaper of the time, The Ceylon Times, sent a special representative to report the proceedings. A complete report of all the speeches corrected by the speakers themselves was published in English day by day.

    The controversy ended with victory for the Buddhists. The Buddhist orator not only replied effectively to the fallacies of the Christian speakers, but also enlightened them on the principles and tenets of the Buddhist doctrine. When the Christians retired from the debate defeated, the Buddhists were overjoyed. Festivities were held in every temple to mark their triumph and the effigy of Gunaananda Thera was carried in procession in every village.

    The triumph of the Buddhists over their Christian adversaries at the Panadura controversy flushed into their veins vigor and enthusiasm to work for the recovery of their lost glory.

    44. Colonel Olcott and Buddhist Activities   

    An American scholar named Dr. Peebles, who happened to be in Sri Lanka on a visit about the time of this Panadura controversy, was so impressed with it that he published its proceedings in book form on his return to America. The attention of Colonel Henry Steele Olcott was first drawn towards Buddhism by this report of the controversy which he happened to read in a public library in America. Olcott was an American by birth who had spent his early life as a very successful farmer and a colonel of both the army and the navy. At an early age of 43 years in 1875 he gave up all worldly fortunes and together with Madame Blavatsky formed the Theosophical Society for the quest of truth in all religions. Having read the reports of the Panadura controversy, he realized the importance of the teachings of the Buddha and in 1880 he came over to Lanka along with Madame Blavatsky to gain a first-hand knowledge of Buddhism. When his studies soon convinced him of the teachings of the Buddha, he embraced Buddhism and worked for the upliftment of the Buddhists in Lanka.

    Olcott showed the Buddhist leaders of Sri Lanka that if Buddhism was to raise its head against the Christian missionary activities, they should open up Buddhist schools to educate their children. Under his guidance and leadership, and with the support of all the leading Buddhist monks, the lay Buddhist leaders in Sri Lanka at that time founded the Buddhist Theosophical Society on 17th June 1880. The primary objects of the society were the establishment of Buddhist schools, and the bringing together of Buddhist workers in a cooperative body without distinction of caste or position for the purpose of promoting the welfare of the Buddhists of Lanka.

    At the time of Olcott’s arrival there were only three Buddhist schools in Sri Lanka which obtained government grants, one at Dodanduwa, another at Panadura, and the third at Bandaragama. In 1897, twelve years after the establishment of the society, there were 25 boys’ schools, 11 girls’ schools, and 10 mixed schools founded by the society. In 1903 there were 174 schools under the management of the society with an attendance of about 30,000 children. In 1940 the number of schools had risen to 429.

    Olcott and his supporters went from village to village appealing to the people to donate subscriptions for the maintenance of these schools, and funds were readily forthcoming. Several leading educationists of his day made his educational plans a great success. Mention should be made among them of C. W. Leadbeater, Bowles Daly, F. L. Woodward, A. E. Bultjens and Mrs. M. M. Higgins. Mrs. Higgins was particularly responsible for the successful education of the Buddhist girls. The leading Buddhist schools of the present day such as Ananda and Nalanda Colleges in Colombo, Dharmaraja in Kandy, Mahinda in Galle, Dharmasoka in Ambalangoda, Visakha in Bambalapitiya, and Museus in Colombo are outstanding examples of the success of his efforts.

    Olcott pointed out to the Sinhalese Buddhist leaders of his time that they should have their own publications to give publicity to Buddhist and national opinion. For this purpose the Buddhist Theosophical Society started the Sinhalese newspaper, Sarasavisandarasa, in December 1880, and later its English supplement, The Buddhist, now a monthly of the YMBA, Colombo. Colonel Olcott worked hard to win back for the Sinhalese their lost rights. It was as a result of his efforts that the Buddhists of Lanka gained freedom to hold their Buddhist processions and that the full-moon day of Vesak was declared a public holiday. The present Buddhist flag is also a creation of Olcott which he appealed to the Buddhists to hoist on all important Buddhist occasions. His efforts also resulted in the appointment of Buddhist registrars of marriages.

    Of the Panadura controversy and the consequent arrival of Colonel Olcott, it could justly be said that these two events jointly closed down a dark period in Lankan Buddhism and ushered in a new bright era.

    This noble personality who awakened the Sinhalese Buddhists and showed them the path on which they should proceed passed away in 1907 while he was in India.

    45. Other Activities of the Buddhist Renaissance Movement   

    Apart from meeting the Christian opponents in open debate, Mohottivatte Gunaananda Thera and his companions had planned other devices to counteract the anti-Buddhist propaganda of the Christian missionaries and revive the Buddhist faith in the country. One of these devices was the establishment of a printing press whereby they could reply to the criticisms of the Christians and also publish books for the study of Buddhism.

    Thus the first press, controlled by Sinhalese Buddhists, was established in 1862 under the name of Lankopakaara Press. It was a donation by the king of Siam. In the same year Mohottivatte Gunaananda Thera established the Sarvajña-saasanaabhivurddhi-daayaka Press at Kotahena, near Colombo. Consequently the Lakrivikirana Press was established in 1863 and the Lankabhinavavisruta Press in 1864.

    In the meantime learned monks of the period, with the assistance of lay followers, brought about a revival of Buddhist learning. Pioneers among them were the venerable Hikkaduve Sri Sumangala, who founded the Vidyodaya Pirivena of Maligakanda in Colombo in 1874 and the venerable Ratmalaane Sri Dhammaaloka, who founded the Vidyaalankara Pirivena of Peliyagoda in Colombo in 1875. In these two great centers of learning a vast number of monks and lay people received education and in a short time the fame of these two pirivenas spread even in foreign countries.

    The scholars whom these two centers produced opened up other pirivenas in different parts of the country and also contributed to Buddhistic studies by compiling and editing numerous books. It was also about this time that devoted scholars from foreign countries who happened to be in Sri Lanka evinced a great interest in Buddhism, its culture and literature, and created an interest in their kinsmen in the West through their valuable treatises. Turner, Tennant, Childers, Rhys Davids and Geiger were but a few among them.

    46. Anagaarika Dharmapaala and the Buddhist Cultural Revival   

    A different type of revivalistic activity was carried out by a group of lay Buddhist leaders just at this time, the foremost of this group being Anagaarika Dharmapaala. The fame of this great personality lies in his successful effort of reforming the Buddhist society in Sri Lanka, which had fallen into a very low moral state, and also in his activities in India for the purpose of reviving Buddhism in that country and for winning back the Buddhist sacred places there for their rightful owners, the Buddhists. We are presently concerned only with his social reformation in Sri Lanka.

    Anagaarika Dharmapaala, formerly known as David Hewavitarana, was born in 1864 as the eldest son of a leading businessman in Colombo who had migrated to the capital city from Matara in south Lanka. The father, mother and the grandfather of the child were devoted Buddhists who were close associates of the venerable Hikkaduve Sri Sumangala Thera. At home the child was thus brought up in a Buddhist environment though he received his education in Christian schools. Those were the days when Mohottiwatte Gunaananda Thera was engaged in verbal battles against the Christian missionary activities, and young Dharmapaala had not only listened to the orations of the great speaker with much inspiration, but also had become a favorite of the monks by his constant visits to the temple at Kotahena. When Colonel Olcott and Madame Blavatsky arrived in Lanka in 1880, Dharmapaala, then a youth of 16 years, naturally became a great favorite of the two foreigners through his association with Gunaananda Thera.

    The speeches and activities of Colonel Olcott greatly inspired the young enthusiast. In 1883, consequent upon a brutal assault on a Buddhist procession by a Catholic mob at Kotahena, Dharmapaala left his Catholic school and in the following year became a member of the Buddhist Theosophical Society in Colombo, of which his grandfather was the president. At the age of 20 Dharmapaala obtained permission from his father to leave home and lead a celibate life as he wished to devote all his time to the welfare of the Saasana. From that time he stayed at the headquarters of the Buddhist Theosophical Society.

    In 1886 when Colonel Olcott returned to Sri Lanka after a short stay abroad and planned to go round the country addressing public gatherings and collecting money for the Buddhist Educational Fund, Anagaarika Dharmapaala joined him as his interpreter. For this purpose he obtained leave from the Education Department where he was working as a junior clerk and subsequently vacated his post in order to dedicate all his life to the good of the religion.

    As the interpreter of Colonel Olcott, Dharmapaala gained immense experience as a speaker. He now traveled throughout the country with or without his companion, Olcott.

    Those were the days when the Buddhists of Lanka were reluctant to declare themselves Buddhists, for Buddhism was considered to be the faith of the unurbanized masses. It was the fashion at that time to become a Christian, to study English and other allied subjects, to adopt a foreign name and to imitate the dress of the foreigners and their customs and manners. Buddhism and Buddhist culture were subjected to ridicule and were the heritage of villagers in the interior.

    Anagaarika Dharmapaala was the foremost among those who rose against this mentality of the Buddhists. Through his public speeches and numerous articles in newspapers and journals he vehemently opposed the habit of imitating foreigners in religion, names and customs. He emphatically pointed out that this tendency to imitate was a clear manifestation of a lack of the primary element of self-esteem. In keeping with his preaching he himself changed his name from David to Dharmapaala. The people listened to his sermons and attentively read his articles in journals and newspapers and were convinced of the truth of his philosophy. Gradually there came about a cultural revival. The people began to take pride in their religion, their language and their customs.

    Above all, several younger men of his time joined the Buddhist forward movement to guide the destinies of future generations of Buddhists in Sri Lanka.

    This great personality, who indefatigably gave his services for the revival of Buddhism in Lanka, India and other parts of the world, in his last days entered the Order as the venerable Devamitta Dhammapaala Thera. He passed away in the year 1933, while he was in India. To perpetuate his memory Sri Lanka and India celebrated his birth centenary in 1964-65.

    47. Buddhism in Sri Lanka in the First Half of the Twentieth Century   

    The leading men in the Buddhist community at the beginning of the twentieth century were inspired by the activities of Anagaarika Dharmapaala and they formed into organized bodies for the promotion of the Buddhist revivalistic movement. Among them were great personalities such as Sir D. B. Jayatillake, F. R. Somnayake, Valisinha Harishchandra and W. A. de Silva. To them the Buddhist revival was the national revival. These prominent men, whose names have gone into history, became active members of leading Buddhist associations like the Buddhist Theosophical Society (founded 1880), the Colombo Young Men’s Buddhist Association (1898), the Maha Bodhi Society (1891), and the Ceylon Buddhist Congress (1918), and worked with remarkable success to achieve the aims and objects of those organizations. Through such organizations these Buddhist leaders were able to unite and bring together all Buddhists in Sri Lanka, to inspire them to be active, to collect funds for educational and other religious purposes, to give the Buddhist children a sound religious and secular education, to do a great deal of social work and to raise the spiritual and moral standard of the people.

    A great deal of literary work was produced during this period. The Vidyodaya and the Vidyaalankaara Pirivenas and their affiliated institutions, which numbered about 200, had produced many scholars who edited several canonical and commentarial works in the early twentieth century. Simon Hewavitarana, the youngest brother of Anagaarika Dharmapaala, had left a large legacy which was to be used for the printing and publishing of Pali books, and this greatly facilitated the production of books at this time. From about 1930 many modern scholars, both monks and laymen, have edited and published many more texts of Pali Buddhism and have also compiled several secondary works on the different aspects of Buddhism. To name these scholars and their publications is not necessary since they and their works are very well known.

    A great enthusiasm was also created for the rebuilding of ancient Buddhist shrines in the old capitals of Sri Lanka. The Ruwanveli Daagaba was the first to receive attention. The other shrines too were renovated one by one and today the old city of Anuraadhapura has once more become a sacred city with the Catholic Church and the commercial sites which were in the city being moved to other places.

    Sri Lanka has not only reorganized her Buddhist activities within the country but has also taken a leading part in sending Dhammaduutas, “messengers of the Dhamma,” abroad. In 1950 the World Fellowship of Buddhists was set up in order to bring all Buddhist countries together, and several conferences were held in the subsequent years.

    It is a very significant fact that this revival of Buddhism in the twentieth century was accelerated towards the middle of that century as a result of the Sinhalese Buddhist leaders of the time gaining control of the reins of government. Ultimately in 1948 Sri Lanka regained its independence after a period of British rule of 133 years. The Buddhist leaders who worked indefatigably for the cause of Buddhism were also the Sinhalese national leaders who led the struggle for liberation from foreign rule. It was therefore to be expected that when these leaders gained national freedom and took over the reins of government from the British rulers, they were mindful of their national faith and its culture and therefore took the necessary steps to set things right so that Buddhism would once more receive its rightful place.

    48. The Buddha Jayanti and After   

    In the year 1956, on the 23rd of May, which was the Vesak full-moon day of that year, the Buddhists in Sri Lanka and other parts of the world celebrated the Buddha Jayanti. That was the 2500th anniversary of the Buddha’s Parinibbaana, a day specially significant to the Buddhists the world over on account of the tradition that it constitutes half the life-span of the Saasana and that from that year the Dhamma would flourish and spread far and wide.

    The history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka from the closing years of the last century has clear indications that the prophecy, as far as Lanka is concerned, is coming true. In other parts of the world too it is seen that more and more people who were not Buddhists by birth are becoming interested in Buddhism.

    The government of Sri Lanka, on its part, undertook numerous activities in commemoration of the Buddha Jayanti. A committee of leading Buddhist monks and laymen was appointed to advise the government on all matters relating to the Buddha Jayanti celebrations. Arrangements were made to translate the Tripitaka into Sinhalese and compile anEncyclopaedia of Buddhism in English and one in Sinhalese as well. It was also decided to compile other books dealing with the biography of the Buddha, his teachings and the history of Buddhism. The completion of the renovation of the Daladaa Maaligawa (the Temple of the Tooth) in Kandy, before the Buddha Jayanti and to aid the reconstruction of the Mahiyangana Thupa were among its other undertakings. A substantial grant was also given to the organization which was handling the construction work of a Sanghaaraama for the Buddhist monks at the University of Ceylon, Peradeniya. Arrangements were made to hold a World Buddhist Conference in Colombo in the following year.

    From the Buddha Jayanti year it was noticeable that the Buddhists in Lanka applied themselves more keenly to the practice of morality taught in Buddhism while showing interest in the celebration of Buddhist festivals. More and more people observe the eight precepts on the Poya days and young children are given a sound religious education. The government on its part has given the necessary encouragement for this religious re-establishment. In January 1959 the Vidyodaya and the Vidyaalankaara Pirivenas were made two universities. The private Buddhist and Christian schools were taken over in December 1960 and are now managed by the government. The four Poya days of the month (i.e., full and new moon, and the two quarter moon days) were made the weekend holidays in 1966, instead of Sundays as in previous times. It has also been planned to start a new Bhikkhu University in Anuraadhapura.

    Sri Lanka has today about 6.5 million Buddhists, which is about sixty-five percent of her total population. There are nearly 6,000 Buddhist monasteries all over the island with approximately 15,000 monks. Almost all the monasteries in the island have their Dhamma schools where Buddhist children are given religious instruction on the Poya days (previously on Sundays). The Colombo Young Men’s Buddhist Association conducts an island-wide examination annually for the pupils of these Dhamma schools. The children are provided with free books, by the Ministry of Cultural Affairs and prizes are given to those who pass these examinations, including one on the Dhammapada, and this association spends annually a large sum of money on the religious education of children. In 1956-57, 163,180 children sat for the Dhamma examination.

    The foregoing account will tell the reader of the vicissitudes that this great religion, Buddhism, had to face during its history of over 2,000 years in this isle of Sri Lanka. It had its tidal ebb and flow. During the four centuries of foreign domination Buddhism withstood all the assaults that almost crushed it.

    Since Sri Lanka gained its independence in 1948, there has been a revival of the Buddhist religion and culture in the country, and this reawakening was particularly noticeable when the Buddha Jayanti was celebrated in 1956.

    The progress achieved since the eighties of the last century may well be called remarkable. Yet, to the Buddhists of Lanka, this should not be a cause of complacency, for which there is no room in a world of change. It remains the duty of the present generation and the coming ones to preserve and strengthen these achievements against the corrosive forces of a materialist age, and to work devotedly so that the Buddha’s message of Wisdom and Compassion may take still firmer and deeper roots in Lanka and also spread its beneficial influence over the world.

    Notes

    1.

    According to the tradition current in Sri Lanka, the date of the Buddha’s Parinibbaana is 543 BCE, but most modern historians tend to place it at 486 BCE, which has here been adopted.

    2.

    A member of the ruling caste in the Indian caste system.

    3.

    See the article on Anuraadhapura by D. T. Devendra, in the Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, pp. 754-765.

    4.

    “The Great Chronicle” of Sri Lanka; see Ch. 24.

    5.

    “The Lesser Discourse on the Elephant’s Footprint Simile” (Bodhi Leaves B 5).

    6.

    Translated in With Robes and Bowl by Bhikkhu Khantipaalo (Wheel No. 83/84).

    7.

    See the articles on Abhayagiri in Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Vol. 1, pp. 21-28.

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    Buddhist Revival

    24-08-2010

    LESSON – 9

    24810 Free Online e-Nālandā University

    Awakened One Shows the Path to Attain Ultimate Bliss

    Through

    http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org

    COMPUTER IS AN ENTERTAINMENT INSTRUMENT!

    INTERNET!

    IS

    ENTERTAINMENT NET!

    TO BE MOST APPROPRIATE!

    Using such an instrument

    The Free e-Nālandā University has been re-organized to function through the following Schools of Learning :

    Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath scientific thought in

    mathematics,

    astronomy,

    alchemy,

    and

    anatomy

    Buddha Taught his Dhamma Free of cost, hence the Free- e-Nālandā follows suit

    As the Original Nālandā University did not offer any Degree, so also the Free  e-Nālandā University.

    Main Course Programs:

    I.
    KAMMA

    REBIRTH

    AWAKEN-NESS 

    BUDDHA

    THUS COME ONE

    DHARMA

    II.
    ARHAT

    FOUR HOLY TRUTHS

    EIGHTFOLD PATH

    TWELVEFOLD CONDITIONED ARISING

    BODHISATTVA

    PARAMITA

    SIX PARAMITAS

    III.

    SIX SPIRITUAL POWERS

    SIX PATHS OF REBIRTH

    TEN DHARMA REALMS

    FIVE SKANDHAS

    EIGHTEEN REALMS

    FIVE MORAL PRECEPTS

    IV.

    MEDITATION

    MINDFULNESS

    FOUR APPLICATIONS OF MINDFULNESS

    LOTUS POSTURE

    SAMADHI

    CHAN SCHOOL

    FOUR DHYANAS

    FOUR FORMLESS REALMS

    V.

    FIVE TYPES OF BUDDHIST STUDY AND PRACTICE

    MAHAYANA AND HINAYANA COMPARED

    PURE LAND

    BUDDHA RECITATION

    EIGHT CONSCIOUSNESSES

    ONE HUNDRED DHARMAS

    EMPTINESS

    VI.

    DEMON

    LINEAGE

    with

    Level I: Introduction to Buddhism

    Level II: Buddhist Studies

    TO ATTAIN

    Level III: Stream-Enterer

    Level IV: Once - Returner

    Level V: Non-Returner
    Level VI: Arhat

     Welcome to the Free Online e-Nālandā University

    Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs  Buddhist movement

    The Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs)  Buddhist movement (or Navayāna (

    Pāli नवयान, as dubbed by certain Ambedkerites) in India began with support of 

    Sri Lankan Buddhist monks. It received an impetus with B. R. Ambedkar’s call for conversion of Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs) to Buddhism in the context of a caste based society that considered them to be at the lower end of the hierarchy.

    Origins

    Buddhism was once dominant through much of India, it had however begun to decline by the 12th century (see Decline of Buddhism in India). The Buddhist revival began in India in 1891, when the Sri Lankan Buddhist leader Anagarika Dhammapala founded the Maha Bodhi Society. The Maha Bodhi Society mainly attracted upper-caste people.

    South India

    Iyothee Thass

    In 1890, Pandit C. Ayodhya Dasa (1845-1914), better known as Iyothee Thass, founded the Sakya Buddhist Society (also known as the Indian Buddhist Association). The first president of the Indian Buddhist Association was the German born American Paul Carus, the author of The Gospel of Buddha (1894).

    Thass, a Tamil Siddha physician, was the pioneer of the Tamil Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs). 

     movement. He argued that Tamil Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs) were originally Buddhists. He led a delegation of prominent  Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs) to Henry Steel Olcott and asked for his help in the reestablishment of “Tamil Buddhism.” Olcott helped Thass to visit Sri Lanka, where he received diksha from Bhikkhu Sumangala Nayake. After returning to India, Thass established the Sakya Buddhist Society in Madraswith branches in many places including Karnataka. Thass established a weekly magazine called Oru Paisa Tamizhan (”One Paisa Tamilian”) in Chennai in 1907, which served as a newsletter linking all the new branches of the Sakya Buddhist Society. The magazine discussed traditions and practices of Tamil Buddhism, new developments in the Buddhist world, and the Indian subcontinent’s history from the Buddhist point of view.

    Brahmananda Reddy, a Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs) leader of Andhra Pradesh, was also fascinated by Buddhism.

    Uttar Pradesh

    In the early 20th century, the Barua Buddhists of Bengal under the leadership of Kripasaran Mahasthavir (1865-1926), founder of the Bengal Buddhist Association in Calcutta (1892), established viharas in cities such as Lucknow, Hyderabad, Shillong and Jamshedpur.

    In Lucknow, Bodhanand Mahastavir (1874-1952) advocated Buddhism for  Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs).  Born Mukund Prakash in a Bengali Brahmin family, he was orphaned at a young age, and was then raised in Benaras by an aunt. He was initially attracted to Christianity, but became a Buddhist after a meeting with Buddhists monks from Ceylon at a Theosophical Conference in Benares. He later lived in Lucknow where he came in contact with Barua Buddhists, many of whom were employed as cooks by the British. In 1914, Prakash was ordained Bodhanand Mahastavir in Calcutta in the presence of Kripasaran Mahasthvir. He began preaching Buddhism in Lucknow. He founded the Bharatiye Buddh Samiti in 1916, and set up a vihara in 1928. In his book Mula Bharatavasi Aur Arya (”Original Inhabitants and Aryans”), Mahastavir stated that the shudras were the original inhabitants of India, who were enslaved by the Aryans.[6]

    Bodhanand Mahastavir wrote another book on Buddhist rituals called Baudha Dvicharya. His associate, Chandrika Prasad Jigyasu, founded the Bahujan Kalyan Prakashan. The two co-authored a book on the life and teaching of the Buddha.

    Acharya Ishvardatt Medharthi (1900-1971) of Kanpur also supported the cause of the Dalits. He had studied Pali at Gurukul Kangri and Buddhist scripture was well known to him. He was initiated into Buddhism by Gyan Keto and the Lokanatha in 1937. Gyan Keto (1906-1984), born Peter Schoenfeldt was a German who arrived to Ceylon in 1936 and became a Buddhist. Although Medharthi heavily criticized the Indian caste system, he didn’t criticize Hinduism. He claimed that the  Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs) were the ancient rulers of India and had been trapped into slavery by the Aryan invaders. He also claimed that the sanatana dharmawas the religion of “Adi Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs) “, and tried to reconcile Buddhism with the Sant Mat.

    Another Bhikkhu of Kanpur, Bhikshu Uttam, was a strong supporter of the Arya Samaj and the Jat Pat Todak Mandal, the anti-caste wing of the Arya Samaj.

    B. R. Ambedkar

    Ambedkar delivering a speech to a rally at Yeola, Nashik, on 13 October 1935

    At the Yeola conference in 1935, prominent Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs  leader B. R. Ambedkar declared that he would not die a Hindu, saying that it perpetuates caste injustices. Ambedkar was approached by various leaders of different denominations and faiths. Meetings were held to discuss the question of Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs) religion and the pros and cons of conversion. On May 22, 1936, an “All Religious Conference” was held at Lucknow. It was attended by prominent Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs) leaders including Jagjivan Ram, though Ambedkar could not attend it. At the conference, Muslim, Christian, Sikh, and Buddhist representatives presented the tenets of their respective religions in an effort to win over Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs).  

    Buddhist monk Lokanatha visited Ambedkar’s residence at Dadar on June 10, 1936 and tried to persuade him to embrace Buddhism. Later in an interview to the Press, Lokanatha said that Ambedkar was impressed with Buddhism and that his own ambition was to convert all Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs).   to Buddhism. In 1937, Lokanatha published a pamphlet Buddhism Will Make You Free, dedicated to the Depressed Classes of India from his press in Ceylon.

    In early 1940s, Ambedkar visited Acharya Ishvardatt Medharthi’s Buddhpuri school in Kanpur. Medharthi had earlier been initiated into Buddhism by Lokanatha, and by the mid-1940s, he had close contacts with Ambedkar. For a short while, Ambedkar also took Pali classes from Medharthi in Delhi.

    Bodhananda Mahastvir and B. R. Ambedkar first met in 1926, at the “Indian Non-Brahmin Conference” convened by Shahu IV of Kolhapur. They met on two more occasions and for a short while in the 1940s, where they discussed dhamma. Later, his followers actively participated in Ambedkar’s Republican Party of India.

    Ambedkar’s conversion

    After publishing a series of books and articles arguing that Buddhism was the only way for the Untouchables(SC/ST) to gain equality, Ambedkar publicly converted on October 14, 1956 at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur. He took the three refuges and the Five Precepts from a Buddhist monk, Bhadant U Chandramani, in the traditional manner and then in his turn administered them to the 380,000 of his followers that were present. The conversion ceremony was attended by Medharthi, his main disciple Bhoj Dev Mudit, and Mahastvir Bodhanand’s Sri Lankan successor, Bhante Pragyanand. Ambedkar would die less than two months later, just after finishing his definitive work on Buddhism.

    Many SC/STs employ the term “Ambedkar(ite) Buddhism” to designate the Buddhist movement, which started with Ambedkar’s conversion and many converted people called themselves as “Nava-Bauddha” i.e. New Buddhists.

    [edit]22 Vows of Ambedkar

    After receiving ordination, Ambedkar gave dhamma diksha to his followers. The ceremony included 22 vows given to all new converts after Three Jewels and Five Precepts. On 16 October 1956, Ambedkar performed another mass religious conversion ceremony at Chanda. He prescribed 22 vows to his followers:

    1. I shall have no faith in Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwara nor shall I worship them.
    2. I shall have no faith in Rama and Krishna who are believed to be incarnation of God nor shall I worship them.
    3. I shall have no faith in Gauri, Ganapati and other gods and goddesses of Hindus nor shall I worship them.
    4. I do not believe in the incarnation of God.
    5. I do not and shall not believe that Lord Buddha was the incarnation of Vishnu. I believe this to be sheer madness and false propaganda.
    6. I shall not perform Shraddha nor shall I give pind-dan.
    7. I shall not act in a manner violating the principles and teachings of the Buddha.
    8. I shall not allow any ceremonies to be performed by Brahmins.
    9. I shall believe in the equality of man.
    10. I shall endeavor to establish equality.
    11. I shall follow the noble eightfold path of the Buddha.
    12. I shall follow the ten paramitas prescribed by the Buddha.
    13. I shall have compassion and loving kindness for all living beings and protect them.
    14. I shall not steal.
    15. I shall not tell lies.
    16. I shall not commit carnal sins.
    17. I shall not take intoxicants like liquor, drugs etc.
    18. I shall endeavor to follow the noble eightfold path and practice compassion and loving kindness in every day life.
    19. I renounce Hinduism, which is harmful for humanity and impedes the advancement and development of humanity because it is based on inequality, and adopt Buddhism as my religion.
    20. I firmly believe the Dhamma of the Buddha is the only true religion.
    21. I believe that I am having a re-birth.
    22. I solemnly declare and affirm that I shall hereafter lead my life according to the principles and teachings of the Buddha and his Dhamma.

    Nowadays many Ambedkarite Organisations are working for these 22 vows (i.e. 22 Pratigya). They believe that these vows only are responsible for the existence & rapid growth of present Buddhism in India. The umbrella organization known as the 22 Pledges Practice & Propagation Movement (i.e. in Hindi- 22 Pratigya Aacharan aur Prachaar Abhiyan) is fully devoted for this purpose. This totally non-political movement is the brain-child of Arvind Sontakke, and comprises around 5,000,000 volunteers (Pracharaks) including many regional and local groups throughout India.

    SC/ST Buddhism movement after Ambedkar’s death

    Map of minority religions of India, showing Buddhist regions and minorities. Dalit Buddhists are concentrated in the state of Maharashtra.

    The Buddhist movement was somewhat hindered by Dr. Ambedkar’s death so shortly after his conversion. It did not receive the immediate mass support from the Untouchable population that Ambedkar had hoped for. Division and lack of direction among the leaders of the Ambedkarite movement have been an additional impediment. According to the 2001 census, there are currently 7.95 million Buddhists in India, at least 5.83 million of whom are Buddhists in Maharashtra. This makes Buddhism the fifth-largest religion in India and 6% of the population of Maharashtra, but less than 1% of the overall population of India.

    The Buddhist revival remains concentrated in two states: Ambedkar’s native Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh — the land of Bodhanand Mahastavir, Acharya Medharthi and their associates.

    [edit]Developments in Uttar Pradesh

    Acharya Medharthi retired from his Buddhapuri school in 1960, and shifted to an ashram in Haridwar. He turned to the Arya Samaj and conducted vedic yajnas all over India. After his death, he was cremated according to Arya Samaj rites. His Buddhpuri school became embroiled in property disputes. His follower, Bhoj Dev Mudit, converted to Buddhism in 1968 and set up a school of his own.

    Rajendranath Aherwar appeared as an important Untouchable(SC/ST) leader in Kanpur. He joined the Republican Party of India and converted to Buddhism along with his whole family in 1961. In 1967, he founded the Kanpur branch of “Bharatiya Buddh Mahasabha”. He held regular meetings where he preached Buddhism, officiated at Buddhist weddings and life cycle ceremonies, and organized festivals on Dr. Ambedkar’s Jayanti (birth day), Buddha Jayanti, Diksha Divas (the day Ambedkar converted), and Dr Ambedkar Paranirvan Divas (the day Ambedkar died).

    The Untouchable(SC/ST) Buddhist movement in Kanpur gained impetus with the arrival of Dipankar, a Chamar bhikkhu, in 1980. Dipankar had come to Kanpur on a Buddhist mission and his first public appearance was scheduled at a mass conversion drive in 1981. The event was organized by Rahulan Ambawadekar, an RPI Dalit leader. In April 1981, Ambawadekar founded the  Untouchable(SC/ST)Panthers (U.P. Branch) inspired by the Maharashtrian Untouchable(SC/ST)Panthers. The event met with severe criticism and opposition from Vishwa Hindu Parishad and was banned.

    In 2002, Kanshi Ram, a popular out-caste political leader from a Sikh religious background, announced his intention to convert to Buddhism on October 14, 2006, the fiftieth anniversary of Ambedkar’s conversion. He intended for 20,000,000 of his supporters to convert at the same time. Part of the significance of this plan was that Ram’s followers include not only Untouchables, but persons from a variety of castes, who could significantly broaden Buddhism’s support. However, he died October 9, 2006 after a lengthy illness; he was cremated as per Buddhist rituals

    Another popular Untouchable(SC/ST) leader, Bahujan Samaj Party chief Mayawati, has said that she and her followers will embrace Buddhism after the BSP gains control of the government.

    Maharashtra

    Flag symbolizes Dalit movement in India.

    Japanese-born Bhadant Nagarjun Surai Sasai is an important Buddhist leader in India. Sasai came to India in 1966 and met Nichidatsu Fuji, whom he helped with the Peace Pagoda at Rajgir. He fell out with Fuji, however, and started home, but, by his own account, was stopped by a dream in which a figure resembling Nagarjuna appeared and said, “Go to Nagpur”. In Nagpur, he met Wamanrao Godbole, the person who had organized the conversion ceremony for Dr. Ambedkar in 1956. Sasai claims that when he saw a photograph of Dr. Ambedkar at Godbole’s home, he realized that it was Ambedkar who had appeared in his dream. At first, Nagpur folk considered Surai Sasai very strange. Then he began to greet them with “Jai Bhim” (victory to Ambedkar) and to build viharas. In 1987 a court case to deport him on the grounds that he had overstayed hisvisa was dismissed, and he was granted Indian citizenship. Sasai is one of the main leaders of the campaign to free the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya from Hindu control.

    [edit]Organized mass conversions

    Deekshabhoomi stupa in Nagpurwhere Ambedkar converted to Buddhism.

    Since Ambedkar’s conversion, several thousand people from different castes have converted to Buddhism in ceremonies including the twenty-two vows. The Tamil Nadu andGujarat governments passed new laws in 2003 to ban “forced” religious conversions. These laws were later withdrawn due to heavy opposition.

    1957
    In 1957, Mahastvir Bodhanand’s Sri Lankan successor, Bhante Pragyanand, held a mass conversion drive for 15,000 people in Lucknow.
     
    2006, Hyderabad
    A report from the UK daily The Guardian said that some Hindus have converted to Buddhism. Buddhist monks from the UK and the U.S. attended the conversion ceremonies in India. In response, Hindu nationalists asserted that Untouchables (SC/STsshould concentrate on illiteracy and poverty rather than looking for new religions.
    2006, Gulbarga
    On October 14, 2006 hundreds of people converted from Hinduism to Buddhism in Gulburga (Karnataka).
    2006
    A Buddhist source claimed that “300,000 Untouchables (SC/STs) are estimated” to have converted to Buddhism as part of 50th year celebrations of Ambedkar’s deeksha in 2006. 
     
    2007, Mumbai
     
    On May 27, 2007 tens of thousands of  Untouchables (SC/STs)from 

    Maharashtra gathered at the Mahalakshmi racecourse in Mumbai to mark the 50th anniversary of the conversion of Ambedkar.

    §  Siyarathana REVIVAL OF BUDDHISM IN INDIA

    The month of October in India is the month of Revival of Buddhism. Throughout this month and particularly on 14th of October thousands of majority native indians called aboriginal inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath (SC/STs or Untouchables) keep taking refugee in the Triple Gem. This process has been going on since 1956 for last 50 years and still continues.
    Today most of the educated aboriginal inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath (SC/STs or Untouchables)praise Dr.B.R. Ambedkar- The symbol of
    aboriginal inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath (SC/STs or Untouchables) movement for his embracing of Buddhism and on the other hand they
    themselves feel that it is time to rid themselves of internal caste divisions and organize themselves strongly under one umbrella. For which one of the most
    effective ways they find is to convert with one voice and one choice to Buddhism.

    First of all one may ask why Dr.B.R. Ambedkar the architect of Indian constitution himself left Hinduism? To which Ambedkar himself says:
    “I thought for long that we could rid the Hindu society of its evils and get
    the depressed classes incorporated into it on terms of equality. That motive
    inspired the Mahad Chaudar Tank satyagraha and the Nasik temple entry
    satyagraha. With that object in mind we burned the Manu smriti and performed
    mass thread ceremonies. Experience has taught me better. I stand today
    absolutely convinced that for the depressed classes there can be no equality
    among the Hindus because on inequality rest the foundations of Hinduism. We
    no longer want to be part of the Hindu society.” (Source material on Dr.
    Babasaheb Ambedkar and the movement of untouchables vol-1 Bombay, Govt. of maharastra, 1982, page 250)
    The modern aboriginal inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath (SC/STs or Untouchables) have found that most of the Hindu leaders are hypocrites who profess to fight casteism while in reality practice its rules. Similarly the Bhraminical bureaucrats who claim to have democratic ideas wishing to raise the backward castes but who really crave nothing better than an oligarchy for themselves. The unity of aboriginal inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath (SC/STs or Untouchables) especially political consolidation proves to be very difficult to achieve because some of the lower castes are often not against caste system but in the system and try to rise within it which, earlier Ambedkar himself had sincerely tried and failed and finally along with five hundred thousand of his followers he embraced Buddhism on 14th october, 1956 at Nagpur.
    Since the teachings of Buddha are based on the central fact of life that is
    suffering, the cause for suffering, the cessation of suffering and the path
    leading to cessation of suffering. Here for Indian aboriginal inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath (SC/STs or Untouchables) there is
    suffering, the cause for their suffering is casteism, the cessation of
    suffering is abandoning this castiest religion, the path leading to
    cessation of suffering is taking refugee in Buddhism. So now the people of India
    with the common sense think why not they take refugee in this Indian
    religion when the people all over the world are taking. Buddhism is the only
    Indian religion which as become the world religion and is considered to be
    the only religion with rational outlook and scientific temper inviting
    people to come and see and not to come and believe. The main object of
    Buddhism is to emancipate the suffering humanity. So people who have become
    refuge less and hope less in the casteist system in india take refugee in cast
    less system which is of course Buddhism as recommended by the Dr.B.R. Ambedkar- The greatest Buddhist leader of India. He himself has said that Buddhism is an all-comprehensive Religion and is the best of all.

    Once Ambedkar said: “Question is being asked why I am inclined towards Buddhism. The direct answer to this question is that I regard the Buddha’s Dhamma to be the best. No religion can be compared to it. If a modern man who knows science must have a religion, the only religion he can have is the Religion of the Buddha. This conviction has grown in me after thirty-five years of close study of all religions. The Buddha’s Religion is the only religion which a society awakened by science could accept, and without which it would perish.
    For the modern world Buddhism is the only religion which it must have to
    save itself”.
    Throughout his life he was questioned on related issues to which he answered in very effective manner. Some of the questions and his answers are compiled here as follows:

    SOME QUESTIONS & DR. AMBEDKAR’S ANSWERS
    (Q-stands for question and A-stands for Ambedkar’s answer)

    Q: Why had our country lost her freedom time and again? Why have we been 
    subjected to foreign domination so often? 
    A: It is because this country as a whole never stood against the enemy. It was always a small section of the society and whoever overpowered it became the victor. This is mainly due to the pernicious caste system of the Hindus. 
    Second world war was fought in Europe during the period from 1939-45. The 
    soldiers who were killed in the battles were immediately replaced by the 
    fresh recruits. Nobody ever paused to say that the credit for winning the 
    war should go to a particular community or section of the society. Whereas 
    in our country in the past if all the Kshatriyas were done away with the 
    battle then there could be no mobilization or recruitment according to the 
    “chaturvarna” since according to this abominable law, Kshatriyas and 
    Kshatriyas alone were entitled to fight. This is what has been enslaved many 
    times. Had the right to bear arms not been denied to us this country would 
    never have lost her freedom nor could any invader have succeeded in 
    conquering her.
    This religion and this social order have ruined us. But this is not going to 
    stop here. This would ruin the Hindus themselves and ultimately India. 

    Q; Should you continue to be hindu?
    A: Why should remain bound to a religion which does not even treat you 
    as a human being? Why do you remain in a religion which prohibits you from 
    entering its temples? Why do you remain in a religion which prohibits you 
    from entering temples? Why do you remain under that religion which prohibits 
    you from drawing water from public wells? Why do you remain in that religion 
    which bars you from decent occupations and jobs? Why do you remain in the 
    religion which insults you at every step? The religion which teaches man to 
    behave with man in an inhuman manner is not religion but infamy. The 
    religion which does not recognize a human being as a human being is a curse. 
    The religion in which the touch of animals is permitted but the touch of a 
    human being pollutes is not a religion but the mockery of a religion. The 
    religion which precludes some classes from education forbids them to 
    accumulate wealth and to bear arms, is not a religion but tyranny. The 
    religion which compels the ignorant to remain ignorant and the poor to 
    remain poor does not deserve to be called a religion.
    Q: Is conversion necessary?
    A: I should like to impress this thing on your minds very clearly that 
    religion is for man and not man for religion. I would like to ask you all 
    what is the sense in living in a society which is devoid of humanity, which 
    does not respect you, protect you, humiliates you, and never misses and 
    opportunity to hurt you. Any person with an iota of self respect and decency 
    will not like to remain in this satanic religion. Only those who live to be 
    slaves can remain in this religion.
    In view of the facts that the Hindu religion which forced our forefathers
    to lead a life of degradation and heaped all sorts of indignities on them,
    kept them poor and ignorant, why should you remain within the fold of such a
    diabolical creed? If, like your forefathers, you too, continue to accept a
    degraded and lowly position, and humiliation, you will continue to he hated.
    Nobody will respect you and nobody will help you. It is for these reasons
    that the question of conversion has become important for us. To change this
    degraded and disgraceful existence into golden life, conversion is
    absolutely necessary.

    Q: Can education destroy caste?
    A: The answer is ‘yes’ as well as ‘no’ If education is given as it is today 
    education can have no effect on caste. It will remain as it will be. The 
    glaring example of it is the Brahmin caste. Cent percent of it is educated; 
    majority of it is highly educated. Yet not one Brahmin has shown himself to 
    be against caste. In fact an educated person belonging to the higher caste 
    is more interested, after his education, to retain the caste system than was when he was not educated. For education gives him an additional interest in the retention of the caste system, namely by opening additional opportunity of getting a bigger job. From this point of view, education is not helpful as means to dissolve caste. So far is the negative side of education.
    But education may be solvent if it is applied to the lower strata of the 
    Indian society. It would raise their spirit of rebellion. In their present 
    state of ignorance, they are the support of the caste system. Once their 
    eyes are opened they will be ready to fight the caste system.
    The fault of the present policy is that though education being given on a
    larger scale it is not given to the right strata of Indian society. If you
    give education to those strata of Indian society which has a vested interest
    in maintaining the caste system for the advantages it gives them, the caste
    system will be strengthened. On the other hand, if you give education to
    the lower strata of Indian society which is interested in blowing up the
    caste system, the caste system will be blown up. All the moment the
    indiscriminate help given to education by the Indian Government and American
    Foundations is going to strengthen the caste system. To make rich richer
    and poor poorer is not the way to abolish poverty. The same is true of
    using education as a means to end the caste system. To give education to
    those who want to keep up the caste system is not to improve the prospects
    of democracy in India, but to put democracy in India in greater jeopardy.
    –TALK FOR VOICE OF AMERICA ON PROSPECTS OF DEMOCRACY IN INDIA - 20th May 1956 by DR. B. R. AMBEDKAR

    Q: In India some people remark that Buddhism has become the religion of 
    untouchables and thereby makes others reluctant to come to this religion. 

    A: Brahmins in his time did not spare even Lord Buddha. In kasibhradwaja 
    sutta they addressed him as Vasala- an outcaste. In spite of all the 
    vilifications and the abuses showered on this religion, Buddhism has spread 
    throughout the world. It is the only Indian religion to become world 
    religion. 

    According to history even when Christianity made its way into Europe the 
    situation in and around Rome was appalling. People did not get enough food 
    to fill their bellies. The people who extended a sympathetic response to the 
    call of Christianity when it entered into Europe were not those who were 
    convinced of its spirituality but those miserable poor and oppressed people 
    for whom porridge, distributed free of cost, served as a meal. The poor and 
    the oppressed became converts to Christianity.
    Thus Mr. Gibbon, the renowned historian and author of the rise and fall of 
    the Roman Empire scornfully branded Christianity as a religion of the poor 
    and the beggars. Mr. Gibbon is not alive today. He would have been shocked 
    to see the whole of Europe engulfed by Christianity.

    Q: Why should one convert to Buddhism alone and not to any other religion? 

    A: For such high principles are not to be found in any other religion. There 
    is a world of difference between this religion and other religions of the 
    world. Main principles of Buddhism form no part of theistic religions. 
    According to other religions God created the world, this earth and 
    thereafter he created heaven, air, moon and other planets. That means he has 
    created also the stone in the bladder. God has done all that was required to 
    be done and now there remains nothing for us to do. All that we are required 
    to do is, just to sing the praises of Almighty God. This does not appeal to 
    rational man today.
    According to Christianity, there will be a day of judgment and everything 
    will depend on the judgment that day. One can be sent to heaven or hell on 
    that day.
    Buddhism denies the existence of God and Soul. The real basis of Buddhism is 
    rational way to eradicate suffering. ‘There is’ Buddha said, “Suffering in 
    the world-suffering wide spread”. 90 percent of the people are afflicted 
    with suffering or misery of some kind or the other. The main object of 
    Buddhism is to emancipate the suffering humanity.

    The first point, which marks off Buddha from the rest, is his 
    self-abnegation. JESUS insists that he is the Son of God. MOHAMMED went a 
    step further. He claimed that he was the messenger of God on earth and 
    insisted that he was the last messenger. KRISHNA went a step beyond both 
    Jesus and Mohammed. He claimed that he was “Parameshwar” - the God of Gods. BUDDHA never arrogated to himself any such status. He was born a son of man and was content to remain a common man and preached his gospel as a common man. Jesus, Mohammed and Krishna claimed for themselves a role of 
    MOKSHADATA. Buddha was satisfied with playing the role of MARGADATA. 

    Brothers and Sisters, I have said whatever there was to be said. This is the 
    best religion in the world and there can be absolutely no doubt about it. 
    With the education, intelligence, knowledge and experience that I have, it 
    is not difficult for me to oppose or fight against any evil. But there is a 
    mountain-colossal mountain of caste hierarchy; Brahmins, Kshatriyas, 
    Vaishyas sitting on our heads. The question before us is, how to topple it 
    down and blast it. It is for this reason that I wanted to acquaint you fully 
    with the religion of Buddha. I owe it as a duty, too. - Dr.B.R,Ambedkar

    So we see that finally Dr.B.R.Ambedkar on 14th October 1956 along with 5 lakh people went to the refuge of Buddha ,Dhamma and Sangha. Committed as he was to rationality and empiricism, he was attracted by Buddhism’s rational out look tuned with morality further strengthened by scientific temper rather than blind belief. It’s teaching of equality and solidarity, its emphasis on transforming both self and world through self effort with self confidence. Thus with this understanding he was able to accomplish “diksha (conversion on 14th oct. 1956)and shiksha,(instruction through his book –The Buddha and His Dhamma.)

    Thus Dr. B.R. Ambedkar went to these three refugee of Buddha, Dhamma 
    and Sangha because
    In BUDDHA he found a True Teacher of Spirituality,
    In DHAMMA the true teachings of equality
    In SANGHA the true friends of humanity.

    Buddhism does not actively look for converts, but it is thoroughly welcoming
    to those who do want to convert. The segmented morality endemic to Hinduism
    is Oppressive to those who suffer under it, while enabling beneficiaries to
    sleep well and feel morally upright in their houses while pain, hunger and powerlessness cries loudly right outside their homes. The data speaks this truth. Long verbal arguments are a waste of time in this denial.

    Dr.Ambedkar’s wish before death was to make the whole of India
    a Buddhist country. Thus dalits feel that the only and best way to express gratitude to this great leader is to embrace Buddhism and full fill his death wish on this dhamma deksha day of 14th october every year in India. Thereby bringing equality, liberty, and fraternity in India and welfare to the whole of humanity.

    Dr. Ambedkar once said “Our ancestors had no means to fight this slavery and
    therefore they could not revolt. They were compelled to live in Hindu
    religion. Nobody can force this type of slavery upon the present generation.
    We have all sorts of freedom. If the present generation does not avail of
    such freedom and free itself from the clutches of Hinduism they are sure to
    be dubbed as cowardly, mean and slavish people devoid of self-respect”.
    Thus what the indian dalits have to say is as follows:

    This day of fourteen October,
    Is the day for Indian Buddhists to remember.

    Taking Buddha as spiritual Teacher,
    Noble Dhamma as spiritual Mother;
    Noble Sangha as spiritual Elder;
    The natives went again to Triple refuge forever.
    All this was due to efforts of Babasaheb Ambedker,
    Who unfortunately passed away on sixth December.

    This movement created scientific temper,
    And rescued people from castist viper.
    Present generation should work like sniper,
    Eliminating from within the immoral character;
    Giving reins to moral leader.

    Never should you ever surrender,
    Nor just be watching like a bystander;
    But strive hard and be a defender.
    Lead a life like that of a brave commander,
    Express your gratitude on this day to Bodhisattva Ambedker.

    MAY ALL BEINGS BE HAPPY & LIBERATED.
    Ven.Bhikkhu Vinayarakkhita

    B. R. Ambedkar

    Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (April 14, 1891 - December 6, 1956) has been called the most prominent Indian Untouchable leader of the 20th century. He was born in Mhow of Madhya Pradesh state in central India, the fourteenth child of parents who belonged to the very lowest stratum of Hindu society, known as Aboriginal Inhabitants of Jambudvipa, i.e, PraBuddha Bharath(Untouchables or SC/STs). He helped spark a revival of Buddhism in India, a movement which is now known as neo-Buddhism.

    B. R. Ambedkar - Education

    Ambedkar’s father who hailed from the Ratnagiri district inMaharashtra had acquired a certain amount of formal education in both Marathi and English. This enabled him to teach his children, especially Bhimrao, and to encourage them in their pursuit of knowledge. In 1908, Ambedkar passed the matriculation examination. He was the first ‘untouchable’ from his community to do so [1]. Four years later, Ambedkar graduated with a B.A. degree in Politics and Economics from Bombay University. Soon afterwards, he was awarded a scholarship to study abroad in return for his promise to serve Baroda State for ten years after finishing his studies.

    From 1913 to 1916, Ambedkar studied at Columbia University in New York [2]. During his three years at Columbia University he studied economics, sociology, history, philosophy, anthropology, and politics. In 1915, he completed his M.A. in Economics. In 1916, he was awarded a Ph.D. for a thesis which he eventually published in book form as The Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India. His first published work, however, was a paper on Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development. After completing his studies in America, Ambedkar, in June 1916, left New York for London, where he was admitted to the London School of Economics and Political Science and to Gray’s Inn. A year later, his scholarship came to an end.

    In 1920, having taught in a Bombay college and started a Marathi weekly called Mooknayak or ‘Leader of the Dumb’, Ambedkar was able to return to London and resume his studies there. In the course of the next three years he completed a thesis on The Problem of the Rupee, for which the University of London awarded him a D.Sc. Simulataneously, he also studied for a Bar-At-Law degree to become a Barrister and was admitted to the British Bar. Before permanently ending his residence in England, Ambedkar spent three months inGermany, where he engaged in further studies in economics at the University of Bonn.

    On June 15, 1952 Columbia University awarded him an honorary Doctor of Law LL.D. degree. On Jan 12, 1953 the Osmania University conferred the honorary degree of LL.D on him.

    Caste, Dalit, Mahar

    B. R. Ambedkar - Professional work

    Back in India, Ambedkar established himself in Bombay and pursued an active career. He built up his legal practice, taught at a college, gave evidence before various official bodies, started a newspaper, and was nominated to the Bombay Legislative Council, in whose proceedings he at once took a leading part. He also attended the three Round Table Conferences that were held in London to enable representatives of the various Indian communities and the three British political parties to consider proposals for the future constitution of India . During the years immediately following his return to India, Ambedkar helped form the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha or Depressed Classes Welfare Association, the objects of which were to promote the spread of education and culture among Untouchables and low caste persons, to improve their economic condition, and to provide a voice for their grievances.

    B. R. Ambedkar - Fight against Untouchability

    Between 1927 and 1932, Ambedkar led his followers in a series of nonviolent campaigns to assert the right of the Untouchables to enter Hindu places of worship and to draw water from public tanks and wells. Two of these campaigns were of special importance: the campaigns against the exclusion of Untouchables from the Kalaram Temple in Nasik and from the Chowdar Tank in Mahad. Both of these involved tens of thousands of Untouchable satyagrahis or nonviolent resisters. Higher caste Hindus responded violently. The Chowdar Tank campaign, after years of litigation, ended in a legal victory for the low caste activists. The Chowdar Tank campaign also saw the ceremonial burning of the Manu Smriti or `Institutes of Manu’, the ancient Hindu law book that Ambedkar believed bore much of the responsibility for the cruel treatment that the Untouchables had suffered. By thus desecrating the volume, Ambedkar’s followers intended to demonstrate for equality. It is debatable if this had the intended effect because the importance of Manu Smriti to Hindu beliefs is unclear and disputed. Especially since Manu Smriti is neither a part of Hindu Scripture nor accorded any religious significance outside rural areas.[citation needed]

    Unpopular as Ambedkar’s activities had already made him in orthodox Hindu opinion, during 1931 and 1932 he became more unpopular still. In his own words, he became the most hated man in India. The cause of the trouble was Ambedkar’s continued insistence on the necessity of separate electorates for the depressed classes. Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress Party were opposed to separate electorates for the depressed classes, and Ambedkar and Gandhi had clashed on the subject at the Second Round Table Conference. Although Gandhi was one of the earliest champions of the cause of untouchables, and wanted to rid Hindu society of all casteism and discrimination, he also hoped to avoid allowing the British to politically divide Hindus based on caste. When the British made their Communal Award in 1934, they granted separate electorates for untouchables. Gandhi went on a “fast unto death,” an action which led. Ambedkar to meet with Hindu orthodox leaders and leaders of the Indian National Congress, and eventually agree to give up the separate electorates and quotas. In return, the Congress Party agreed to increase its representation of untouchables, and Hindureligious leaders became aggressive in their attack upon caste discrimination and untouchability as a whole.

    Today, Dr. Ambedkar, is openly credited with the crafting of the Indian Constitution. This volume has much significance, for other nations who won independence at about the same time in the Indiansubcontinent, failed to enshrine the rights of their citizens. India, alone is the exception - and Dr.Ambedkar’s contributions are openly recognized.

    Ambedkar was not satisfied by what he felt were inevitably hollow promises given the reluctance of orthodox Hindus to re-visit caste doctrines, and his conceding to Gandhi over key political issues. At this point, partly as a result of the opposition he had encountered over the question of separate electorates and partly because of the continued exclusion of Untouchables from some Hindu temples, Ambedkar made a tactical shift: he started exhorting his followers to concentrate on raising their standard of living and gaining political power. He also began to think there was no future for the Untouchables within Hinduism and that they should change their religion. Inspite of this, there was little or no reaction from the Hindu community, which saw him as a Reformer. In the same year Ambedkar was appointed principal of the Government Law College, Bombay, built a house for himself and his library of over 50,000 books, and lost his wife Ramabai. They had been married in 1908, when he was sixteen and she was nine and she had borne him five children, of whom only one survived.

    B. R. Ambedkar - Political career

    In the course of the next few years Ambedkar founded the Independent Labour Party, and took part in the 1937 provincial legislative elections held as a result of the Government of India Act 1935. He was elected to the Bombay Legislative Assembly, where he pressed for the abolition of agricultural serfdom, defended the right of industrial workers to strike, advocated the promotion of birth control, and addressed meetings and conferences throughout the Bombay Presidency. With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Ambedkar regarded Nazi ideology as a direct threat to the liberties of the Indian people. Ambedkar exhorted the public to support the British government in prosecuting the war and encouraged Untouchables to join the Indian Army. In 1941, Ambedkar was appointed to the Defence Advisory Committee and in the following year joined the Viceroy’s Executive Council as Labour Member, a post he occupied for the next four years. During the same period he transformed the Independent Labour Party into the All-India Scheduled Caste Federation, founded the People’s Education Society, and published a number of highly controversial books and pamphlets. Among the latter were Thoughts on Pakistan, What Congress and Gandhi have Done to the Untouchables, and Who Were the Shudras?

    B. R. Ambedkar - Father of the Indian constitution

    In 1947, India achieved independence and Ambedkar, who had already been elected a member of the Constituent Assembly, was invited by Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of the country, to join the Cabinet as Minister for Law. A few weeks later the Assembly entrusted the task of framing the Constitution to a Draft Committee, and this committee elected Ambedkar as its chairman. For the next two years, he worked on the Draft Constitution, writing it almost singlehandedly. Despite ill health, Ambedkar completed the Constitution by the beginning of 1948 and later that year introduced it in the Constituent Assembly. Thereafter he steered it through the legislative process and in November of 1949 it was adopted by the Assembly with very few amendments. He is aptly called as the Father of the Indian constitution.

    Ambedkar’s resignation from the Cabinet in 1951 marked the virtual end of his political career. In the general elections of January 1952 he failed to win a seat in the lower house of India’s parliament, the Lok Sabha, and was equally unsuccessful when he contested a by-election the following year. In March 1952 he was, however, elected to the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of parliament, as one of the seventeen representatives of the erstwhile Bombay State. He could use this forum to question the government effectively.

    B. R. Ambedkar - Conversion to Buddhism

    While Ambedkar continued to participate in the proceedings of the Rajya Sabha, and was to do so until the end of his life, from 1952 onwards Ambedkar’s energies were increasingly devoted to other concerns. Ever since the 1935 Depressed Classes Conference, when he had shocked Hindu India with the declaration that though he had been born a Hindu he did not intend to die one, Ambedkar had been giving earnest consideration to the question of conversion. Further consideration made him increasingly convinced that there was no future for the Untouchables within Hinduism, that they would have to adopt another religion, and that the best religion for them to adopt was Buddhism. In 1950 he visited Sri Lanka at the invitation of the Young Men’s Buddhist Association, Colombo, where he addressed a meeting of the World Fellowship of Buddhists in Kandy and appealed to the Untouchables of Sri Lanka to embrace Buddhism. In 1951, he wrote an article defending the Buddha against the charge that he had been responsible for the decrease in women’s status in ancient India. The same year, he compiled the Bauddha Upasana Patha, a small collection of Buddhist devotional texts.

    In 1954, Ambedkar twice visited Burma, the second time in order to attend the third conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists in Rangoon. In 1955, he founded the Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha or Buddhist Society of India and installed an image of the Buddha in a temple that had been built at Dehu Road, near Pune on 25th December 1954. Addressing the thousands of Untouchables who had assembled for the occasion, he declared that henceforth he would devote himself to the propagation of Buddhism in India. He also announced that he was writing a book explaining the tenets of Buddhism in simple language for the benefit of the common man. The work in question was ‘The Buddha and His Dhamma’, on which he had been working since November 1951 and which he completed in February, 1956. Not long afterwards, Ambedkar announced that he would be formally converting in October of that year. Arrangements were accordingly made for the ceremony to be held in Nagpur.

    On 14 October 1956, Ambedkar took the Three Refuges and Five Precepts from a Buddhist monk in the traditional manner and then, in turn, administered them to the 380,000 men, women, and children who had come to Nagpur in response to his call. After further conversion ceremonies in Nagpur and Chanda, Ambedkar returned toDelhi. A few weeks later he travelled to Kathmandu in Nepal for the fourth conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists, where he addressed the delegates on “The Buddha and Karl Marx”[4]. On his way back to Delhi, he made two speeches in Benares and visited Kusinara, where the Buddha had died. In Delhi he took part in various Buddhist functions, attended the Rajya Sabha, and completed the last chapter of his book The Buddha and Karl Marx.

    Ambedkar died on 6 December 1956. Although Ambedkar had been a Buddhist for only seven weeks, during that period he probably did more for the promotion of Buddhism than any other Indian since Ashoka. At the time of his death three quarters of a million Untouchables had become Buddhists, and in the months that followed hundreds of thousands more took the same step - despite the uncertainty and confusion that had been created by the sudden loss of their leader.

    The work which has been described as Ambedkar’s magnum opus,The Buddha and His Dhamma, was written between 1951 and 1956 and published by the People’s Education Society in November 1957, almost a year after his death.

    B. R. Ambedkar - 22 Vows

    These vows were administered by Dr. Ambedkar on October 14th and 16th, 1956 in mass ceremonies to audiences as large as half a million people at Nagpur and Chanda.

    1) I shall have no faith in Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh nor shall I worship them. 2) I shall have no faith in Rama and Krishna who are believed to be incarnation of God nor shall I worship them. 3) I shall have no faith in ‘Gauri’, Ganapati and other gods and goddesses of Hindus nor shall I worship them. 4) I do not believe in the incarnation of God. 5) I do not and shall not believe that Lord Buddha was the incarnation of Vishnu. I believe this to be sheer madness and false propaganda. 6) I shall not perform ‘Shraddha’ nor shall I give ‘pind-dan’. 7) I shall not act in a manner violating the principles and teachings of the Buddha. 8) I shall not allow any ceremonies to be performed by Brahmins. 9) I shall believe in the equality of man. 10) I shall endeavor to establish equality. 11) I shall follow the ‘noble eightfold path’ of the Buddha. 12) I shall follow the ten ‘paramitas’ prescribed by the Buddha. 13) I shall have compassion and loving kindness for all living beings and protect them. 14) I shall not steal.15) I shall not tell lies. 16) I shall not commit carnal sins. 17) I shall not take intoxicants like liquor, drugs etc. 18) I shall endeavor to follow the noble eightfold path and practice compassion and loving kindness in every day life. 19) I renounce Hinduism, which is harmful for humanity and impedes the advancement and development of humanity because it is based on inequality, and adopt Buddhism as my religion. 20) I firmly believe the Dhamma of the Buddha is the only true religion. 21) I believe that I am having a re-birth. 22) I solemnly declare and affirm that I shall hereafter lead my life according to the principles and teachings of the Buddha and his Dhamma.

    B. R. Ambedkar - Memorial and modern views

    A memorial for Ambedkar has been established in Delhi (26 Alipur Road, Near IP College, Civil Lines, New Delhi - 110054). 26 Alipur Road is the house where Ambedkar spent most of his life since he moved to Delhi, and is also the place where he breathed his last. The memorial was opened after a prolonged struggle by Dalit groups, when finally the Government of India secured the house from Jindals who occupied the property.

    His birthdate is now a public holiday in India known as Ambedkar Jayanti. As a sign of respect, many Indians use the title “Babasaheb” in front of his name. “Jai Bhim!”, referring to Ambedkar’s first name, Bhimrao, is sometimes used as a greeting or an exclamation. He was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1990.

    B. R. Ambedkar - Ambedkar:the Movie

    Jabbar Patel directed the Hindi-language movie “Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar” [5] about the life of Ambedkar, released in 2000. SouthIndian actor Mammootty starred in the title role. Sponsored by India’s National Film Development Corporation and Ministry of Social Justice, the film was released after a long and controversial gestation period.

     

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