SECTION FOUR–SERMONS ON NIBBANA

§ 1. What is Nibbana?

1. Once the Blessed Lord was staying at Shravasti in Anathapindika’s Ashrama, where Sariputta was also staying.

2. The Lord, addressing the Brethren, said: “Almsmen, be ye partakers not of the world’s goods, but of my doctrine; in my compassion for you all I am anxious to ensure this.”

3. Thus spoke the Lord, who thereupon rose and passed to his own cell.

4. Sariputta remained behind, and the Brethren asked him to explain what is Nibbana.

5. Then Sariputta in reply to the Brethren said: “Brethren, know you that greed is vile, and vile is resentment.

6. “To shed this greed and this resentment, there is the Middle Way, which gives us eyes to see and makes us know, leading us on to peace, insight, enlightenment, and Nibbana.

7. “What is this Middle Way? It is naught but the Noble Eight-fold Path of right outlook, right aims, right speech, right action, right means of livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration; this, Almsmen is the Middle Way.

8. “Yes, sirs; anger is vile and malevolence is vile, envy and jealousy are vile, niggardliness and avarice are vile, hypocrisy and deceit and arrogance are vile, inflation [boastfulness?] is vile, and indolence is vile.

9. “For the shedding of inflation and indolence there is the Middle Way, giving us eyes to see, making us know, and leading us on to peace, insight, enlightenment.

10. “Nibbana–which is naught but that Noble Eight-fold Path.”

11. Thus spoke the reverend Sariputta—glad at heart, the Almsmen rejoiced at what he had said.

§ 2. The Roots of Nibbana

(2.i)

1. Once the venerable Radha came to the Exalted One. Having done so, he saluted the Exalted One and sat down on one side. So seated, the venerable Radha thus addressed the Exalted One: “Pray, Lord, what for is Nibbana?”

2. “Nibbana means release from passion,” replied the Lord.

3. “But Nibbana, Lord,–what is the aim of it?”

4. “Rooted in Nibbana, Radha, the righteous life is lived. Nibbana is its goal. Nibbana is its end.”

(2.ii)

1. Once the Exalted One was dwelling at Shravasti, in Jeta’s Grove, at Anathapindika’s Park. Then the Exalted One called the brethren, saying, “Brethren.” “Yes, Lord,” replied those brethren to the Exalted One. The Exalted One thus spake:

2. “Do ye bear in mind, brethren, the Five Fetters that bind to the lower world, as taught by me?”

3. Whereupon the venerable Malunkyaputta said this to the Exalted One :

4. “I, Lord, bear in mind those Five Fetters.”

5. “And how, Malunkyaputta, do you bear them in mind?”

6. ” I bear in mind, Lord, the view of bodyhood, as taught by the Exalted One; and wavering, and the moral taint of dependence on rite and ritual, the excitement of sensual delight, and malevolence, taught by the Exalted One as fetters that bind to the lower world. These are the Five Fetters that I bear in mind, Lord.”

7. “As taught for whom, Malunkyaputta, do you bear in mind these Five Fetters? Will not the wanderers of other views reproach you, using the parable of a tender baby for their reproach and saying thus:

8. “‘But, Malunkyaputta, there can be no bodyhood for a tender baby-boy, dull of wits and lying on his back. How, then, can there arise in him any view of bodyhood? Yet there is indeed latent in him a tendency to the view of bodyhood.

9. “‘Likewise, Malunkyaputta, there can be no mental conditions for a tender baby-boy, dull of wits and lying on his back. How, then, can there be in him any wavering of mental conditions? Yet there is in him a latent tendency to wavering.

10. “‘So also, Malunkyaputta, he can have no moral practice. How, then, can there be in him any moral taint of dependence on rite and ritual? Yet he has a latent tendency thereto.

11. “‘Again, Malunkyaputta, that tender babe has no sensual passions. How, then, can be known the excitement of sensual delight? But the tendency is there.

12. “‘Lastly, Malunkyaputta, for that tender babe beings do not exist. How then can it harbour malevolence against beings? Yet the tendency thereto is in him.’

13. “Now, Malunkyaputta, will not those wanderers of other views thus reproach you, using for their reproach the parable of that tender baby-boy?”

14. When this was said, the venerable Ananda thus addressed the Exalted One: “Now is the time, Exalted One. O Wayfarer, now is the time for the Exalted One to set.”

SECTION FIVE–SERMONS ON DHAMMA

§ 1. Why Right Views Rank First

1. Of the noble Eightfold Plath the noblest is Right Outlook.

2. Right thinking is the preface and the key to every thing else in the higher life, and ignorance [sic].

3. The lack of understanding is the root of all evil.

4. For developing right outlook, one must see all phenomena of life as a process of causal law. To have right outlook is to recognise the law of cause and effect.

5. “Whatsoever individual, brethren, follows perverted views, perverted aim, perverted speech or acts or living, perverted effort, attention, and contemplation; whose knowledge and emancipation are perverted–for him every action of deed, word or thought, performed and achieved according to such perverted views; every willed act, every aspiration, every resolve, all his activities; these things one and all conduce to what is distasteful, unpleasing, repulsive, unprofitable, and painful. And why so? Because of his evil view.”

6. To be right is not enough. A baby may be right, but that does not mean that a baby knows what is right. To be right one must know what is right.

7. “Ananda, who can be rightly described as an almsman? Only he who has mastered what is rationally possible and what is rationally impossible.”

§ 2. Why Bother About Life After Death?

1. On a certain occasion the venerable Kassapa the Great and the venerable Sariputta were staying near Benares at Isipatana in the Deer Park.

2. Then the venerable Sariputta, rising up at eventide from solitude, went to the venerable Kassapa the Great, and sat down on one side.

3. So seated, the venerable Sariputta said to the venerable Kassapa the Great, “How now friend Kassapa? Does the Tathagata exist beyond death?

4. “Undeclared is it, friend, by the Exalted One, that the Tathagata exists beyond death.

5. “What then, friend? Does the Tathagata both exist and not exist beyond death?

6. “This also, friend, is undeclared by the Exalted One.

7. “How then, friend? Does the Tathagata neither not exist beyond death? That also, friend, is not declared by the Exalted One.

8. “But why, friend, has it not been declared by the Exalted One?”

9. “This is a question not concerned with profit to humanity, or with the first principles of holy life. It does not lead to perfect wisdom nor to Nibbana. That, friend, is why it is not declared by the Exalted One.”

§ 3. Prayers and Invocations to God are a Futility

1. Once the Blessed Lord speaking to Vasettha said:

2. “If this river Achiravati were full of water even to the brim and overflowing, and a man with business to be done on the further bank of it should come up, and want to cross over,

3. “And standing on that bank, he should invoke the further bank and say: ‘ Come hither, O further bank! Come over to this side!’

4. “Now what think you, Vasettha? Would the further bank of the river Achiravati, by that man’s invoking and praying, and hoping, and praising, come over to this side?

5. “In just the same way, Vasettha, do the Brahmins, versed in the three Vedas, omitting the practice of those qualities which really make a man a Brahmin, and adopting the practice of those qualities which really make men non-Brahmins, say thus:

6. “‘Indra we call upon, Brahma we call upon, Isana we call upon, Prajapati we call upon, Brahma we call upon–we call, we call.’

7. “Verily, Vasettha, that these Brahmins, by reason of their invoking .and praying and hoping and praising, should after death become united with Brahma–verily such a condition of things can in nowise be.”

§ 4. It is Not What You Eat that Makes You Holy

1. A Brahmin happened to meet the Lord, and raised the question of the effect of food on a man’s character.

2. The Brahmin said: “The millet-grain, palm-nuts, pulse, bulbs, and wilding shoots–this diet, rightly got, ever prompts the good life. Tis eating carrion that is bad.”

3. The Blessed One replied: “Though you (Lord) say you touch no carrion, you eat choice dishes made with [the] flesh of birds–I ask what you term ‘carrion’.

4. “Killing and maiming, stripes, bonds, theft, lies, fraud, deceit, adultery–not meats, but these, are carrion.

5. “Pursuit of pleasure, lust for guzzlings, life unclean, blatant dissent–not meats, but these, are carrion.

6. “Backbiting, cruelty, betrayals, ruthless pride, mean stinginess–not meats, but these, are carrion.

7. “Anger, conceit, revolt, guile, envy, bluster, pride, low company–not meats, but these, are carrion.

8. “Base living, slander, fraud, cheating, the trickster’s wiles, foul infamies–not meats, but these, are carrion.

9. “This rage to slay and steal, these crimes, are fraught with doom and end in hell–not meats, but these, are carrion.

10. “No abstinence from meat and fish, no nudity, no topknots, shaven crowns, or garb of pelt, no cult of sacred fire, no stark austerities to purchase future bliss, no rinsing, burnt-offering, rites, can cleanse the man who doubts.

11. “Control thy sense, rule thy powers, hold to Truth, be kind. The saint who leaves all ties and vanquishes all ills, is stained by naught he either sees or hears.”

12. Hearing the Lord preach these lofty, saving truths, denouncing ‘carrion’, and sweeping ills away, the Brahmin meekly knelt and asked to be enrolled as Almsman then and there.

§ 5. Not Food But Evil Actions That Matter

1. A Brahmin, by name Amagandha, was an ascetic who lived in the region of Himalayas with his pupils.

2. They ate neither fish nor flesh. Every year they came down from their hermitage in search of salt and acids. The inhabitants of the village received them with honour, and gave them hospitality for four months.

3. Then the Blessed Lord with his monks visited the same village. The people, on hearing the Lord preach his Dhamma, became his followers.

4. That year even Amagandha and his disciples as usual went to the villagers, but the villagers did not show the same enthusiasm.

5. Amagandha was disappointed to hear that the Lord did not forbid eating fish and flesh. Wishing to have the matter confirmed, he went to Jeta Vana at Shravasti, where the Blessed Lord was then staying, and said:

6. “Millet, cingula-beans and peas, edible leaves and roots, the fruit of any creeper; the righteous who eat these, obtained justly, do not tell lies for the sake of pleasures.

7. “Thou eatest whatever food is given by others, which is well prepared, nicely got up, pure, and excellent. He who enjoys such food made of rice, he eats ‘Amagandha’. You say that the charge of Amagandha, does not apply to me, while eating rice with well prepared bird’s flesh.

8. “I inquire the meaning of this from you, of what kind is your Amagandha?”

9. The Lord replied: “Taking life, beating, cutting, binding, stealing, lying, fraud, deceiving, worthless knowledge, adultery–this is Amagandha, and not the eating of flesh.

10. “In this world those individuals who are unrestrained in sensual pleasures, who are greedy for sweet things, who are associated with impure actions, who are of Nihilistic views, crooked, difficult to follow–this is Amagandha, and not the eating of flesh.

11. “In this world those who are rude, harsh, backbiting, treacherous, unkind, excessively egoistic, ungenerous, and do not give anything to anybody–this is Amagandha, and not the eating of flesh.

12. “Anger, pride, obstinacy, antagonism, deceit, envy, boasting, excessive egoism, association with the unrighteous–this is Amagandha, and not eating of flesh.

13. “Those who are of bad morals, refuse to pay their debt, slanderers, deceitful in their dealings, pretenders, those who in this world being the vilest of men, commit such wrongdoings–this is Amagandha, and not the eating of flesh.

14. “Those persons who, in this world, are uncontrolled towards living beings, who are bent on injuring others, having taken their belongings; immoral, cruel, harsh, disrespectful–this is Amagandha, and not the eating of flesh.

15. “Those who attack these living beings either because of greed or of hostility, and always bent upon (evil), they go to darkness after death and fall into hell headlong–this is Amagandha, and not the eating of flesh.

16. “Abstaining from fish or flesh, nakedness, shaving of the head, matted hair, covering with ashes, wearing rough deer skins, attending the sacrificial fire–nor all these various penances in the world (performed) for immortality, neither incantations, oblations, sacrifices nor seasonal observances, purifies a person who has not overcome his doubt.

17. “He who lives with his senses guarded and conquered, and is established in the Dhamma, delights in uprightness and gentleness, who has gone beyond attachments and has overcome all sorrows–that wise man does not cling to what is seen and heard.

18. “It is evil actions which constitute Amagandha, and not the eating of fish or flesh.”

§ 6. Not Enough Is Outward Washing

1. Once the Exalted One was dwelling at Shravatsi. And the Brahmin Sangarava also dwelt there. Now he was a cleanser by water, and practised cleansing by water. Night and day he abode, given to the habit of going down to bathe.

2. Now the venerable Ananda, robing himself at an early hour and taking outer robe and bowl, went forth to Shravatsi to beg. And when he had gone his rounds in Shravatsi and had eaten his meal, upon his return he went to the Exalted One, saluted Him, and sat down on one side. So seated, the venerable Ananda said:

3. “Lord, there is here one Sangarava, a Brahmin, dwelling at Shravatsi, a cleanser by water, one who practises cleansing by water. Night and day does he abide, given to the habit of going down to bathe. Well were it. Lord, if the Exalted One would pay a visit to the Brahmin Sangarava, out of compassion for him.”

4. And the Exalted One consented by His silence.

5. So next day at an early hour, the Exalted One robed himself and, taking outer robe and bowl, went to the dwelling of the Brahmin Sangarava, and when he got there he sat down on a seat made ready.

6. Then the Brahmin Sangarava came to the Exalted One and greeted him, and after the exchange of mutual courtesies sat down on one side.

7. As he thus sat, the Exalted One said this to the Brahmin Sangarava: “Is it true, Brahmin, as they say, that thou art a cleanser by water, that thou dost practise cleansing by water, abiding night and day given to the habit of going down to bathe?”

8. “True it is. Master Gautama.”

9. “Now, Brahmin, seeking what profit dost thou so practise the habit of going down to bathe, and so forth?”

10. “It is in this way, Master Gautama. Whatsoever evil I do by day, I get it washed away that very evening by my bathing. Whatsoever evil I do by night, I get it washed away next morning by my bathing. That is the profit I am looking for in being a cleanser by water and so forth.”

11. Then said the Exalted One:

12. “The Norm is the pool. It is clear and undefiled.

13. “Hither when they have come to bathe, the masters of the lore are cleansed in every limb, and pass unto the Further Shore.”

14. Whereupon the Brahmin Sangarava said to the Exalted One: “Excellent it is, Master Gautama. May the Master Gautama accept me as his follower, from this day forth so long as life doth last, as one who has taken refuge in him.”

§7. What is Holy Life?

1. Once while the Blessed Lord was on [a] journey he gave, as was his practice, the following discourse to the Bhikkhus who were accompanying him.

2. Addressing the Bhikkhus the Lord said: “O brethren, this holy life is not practised with a view to deceive people, nor to seek their favour, nor for the purpose of gain, benefit, or fame, nor with the intention of getting out of difficulties in controversy, nor that one may be known as such and such by men. Indeed, brethren, this holy life is practised for the controlling (of body and speech), the cleansing (of corruptions), and the detachment (from) and cessation (of craving).”

SECTION SIX–SERMONS ON SOCIO-POLITICAL QUESTIONS

§ 1. Do Not Depend on the Favour of Princes

1. Once the Exalted One was staying at Rajagraha in the Bamboo Grove, in the Squirrels’ Feeding ground.

2. At that time, Prince Ajatasatru was supporting Devadatta, who had turned hostile to the Blessed Lord.

3. He was maintaining the supporters of Devadatta, late and early, with five hundred carts, conveying therein food brought in five hundred cooking-pots.

4. Then a number of the brethren came before the Exalted One, saluted him, and sat down on one side, and there sitting, they told all of these things to the Exalted One.

5. Then the Blessed Lord, addressing the brethren said: “Do ye not long for gains, favours and flattery from the kings. So long, brethren, as Prince Ajatasatru thus supports Devadatta, late and early, with five hundred carts, conveying therein food brought in five hundred cooking-pots, it is ruin, brethren, that may be expected of Devadatta, and not growth in good conditions.

6. “Just as if, brethren, one were to crumble liver on a mad dog’s nose, the dog would only get the madder, even so, brethren, so long as Prince Ajatasatru thus supports Devadatta it is ruin that may be expected of Devadatta, and not growth in good conditions. Thus terrible, brethren, are gains, favours, and flattery of the princes.

7. “They are a bitter, painful hindrance to the attainment of the sure peace that passeth all.

8. “Wherefore, brethren, thus must you train yourselves: ‘When gains, favours, and flattery befall us, we will reject them, and when they do befall us, they shall not take hold of and be established in our hearts, and make us slaves of the prince.’”

§2. If the King is Righteous, his Subjects will be Righteous

1. Once the Lord, addressing the Almsmen, said:

2. “Brethren during such time as kings are unrighteous, their ministers and officers also become unrighteous. The ministers and officers, brethren, being unrighteous, Brahmins and householders also become unrighteous. The Brahmins and householders, brethren, being unrighteous, the town-folk and villagers become unrighteous.

3. “But whenever, brethren, kings are righteous, then kings’ ministers and officers also become righteous. Whenever kings’ ministers and officers become righteous, the Brahmins and householders also become righteous. Whenever Brahmins and householders become righteous, the town-folk and villagers also become righteous.

4. “When kine are crossing, if the old bull swerves, they all go swerving, following his lead. So among men, if he who is reckoned chief walks crookedly, the others crooked go.

5. “Similarly, the whole realm suffers when the king goes wrong. When kine are crossing, if the bull goes straight they all go straight, because his course is straight. So among men, if he who’s reckoned chief walks righteously, the others live aright. The whole realm lead happy lives when kings are good.”

§3. It is the Social System on which Depends Political and Military Strength

1. The Blessed One was once dwelling in Rajagraha, on the hill called the Vultures’ Peak.

2. Now at that time, Ajatasatru, the son of the queen consort of Videha origin, the king of Magadha, was desirous of attacking the Vajjins, and he said to himself, “I will root out these Vajjins, mighty and powerful though they be, I will destroy these Vajjins, I will bring these Vajjins to utter ruin!”

3. So he spoke to the Brahmin Vasakara, the Prime Minister of Magadha, and said:

4. “Come now, O Brahmin, do you go to the Blessed One, and bow down in adoration at his feet on my behalf, and enquire on my behalf whether he is free from illness and suffering, and in the enjoyment of ease and comfort and vigorous health.

5. “Then tell him that Ajatasatru, son of Videhi, the King of Magadha, is eager to attack the Vajjins, mighty and powerful though they be–I will destroy these Vajjins, I will bring these Vajjins to utter ruin!

6. “And bear carefully in mind whatever the Blessed One may predict, and repeat it to me. For the Buddha speaks nothing untrue.”

7. Then the Brahmin Vasakara hearkened to the words of the king, saying, “Be it as you say.” And ordering a number of magnificent carriages to be [made] ready, he went to the Vultures’ Peak.

8. On arriving there, he exchanged with the Blessed One the greetings and compliments, and then delivered to him the message, even as the king had commanded.

9. Now at that time the venerable Ananda was standing behind the Blessed One. And the Blessed One said to him: “Have you heard, Ananda, that theVajjins hold full and frequent public assemblies?

10. “Lord, so I have heard,” replied he.

11. “So long, Ananda,” rejoined the Blessed One, “as the Vajjins hold these full and frequent public assemblies; so long may they be expected not to decline, but to prosper.

12. “So long, Ananda, as the Vajjins meet together in concord, and rise in concord, and carry out their undertakings in concord.

13. “So long as they enact nothing not already established, abrogate nothing that has been already enacted, and act in accordance with the ancient institutions of the Vajjins as established in former days.

14. “So long as they honour and esteem and revere and support the Vajjin Elders, and make it a point of duty to hearken to their words.

15. “So long as no women or girls belonging to their clans are detained among them by force or abduction.

16. “So long as the Vajjins respect and follow religion.

17. “So long, Ananda, the Vajjins may be expected not to decline but to prosper, and no one can destroy them.”

18. In short, the Blessed Lord declared that so long as the Vajjins believe in democracy and practise democracy, there is no danger to their State.

19. Then the Blessed One addressed Vasakara and said:

20. “When I was once staying, O Brahmin, at Vaishali, I taught the Vajjins these conditions of welfare.

21. “We may expect, then,” answered the Brahmin, “the welfare and not the decline of the Vajjins, so long as they observe these conditions. So, Gautama, the Vajjins cannot be overcome by the king of Magadha.”

22. So Vasakara heard the words of the Blessed One, rose from his seat, and went back to Rajagraha to inform the king of what the Lord had said.

§ 4. War is Wrong

1. It so happened that Ajatasatru, the king of Magadha, mustering an army of cavalry and infantry, invaded Kasi, a part of the kingdom of king Pasenadi. And Pasenadi, hearing of the expedition, also mustered a similar army and went to meet him.

2. The two fought with one another, and Ajatasatru defeated the king Pasenadi, who retreated to his own capital Shravasti.

3. The Bhikkhus who were in Shravasti, returning from their alms round, came and told the Exalted One of the battle and the retreat.

4. “Almsmen, the king of Magadha, Ajatasatru, is a friend of whatever is evil. King Pasenadi is a friend of whatever is good. For the present, Pasenadi will pass the night in misery, a defeated man.

5. “Conquest engenders hate; the conquered lives in misery. But whoso is at peace and passionless, happily doth he live; conquest hath he abandoned and defeat.”

6. Again it so happened these two kings met in battle a second time. But in that battle, the Kosala king Pasenadi defeated Ajatasatru and captured him alive. Then king Pasenadi thought: “Although this king injures me who was not injuring him, yet is he my nephew. What if I were now to confiscate his entire army, elephants, horses, chariots and infantry and leave him only his life?” And he did so.

7. And almsmen, returning from their alms tour in Shravasti, brought word of this to the Exalted One. Thereupon the Exalted One said: “A man may spoil another, just so far as it may serve his ends; but when he’s spoiled by others, he, despoiled, spoils yet again.

8. “So long as evil’s fruit is not matured, the fool doth fancy now’s the hour, the chance! But when the deed bears fruit, he fareth ill.

9. “The slayer gets a slayer in his turn; the conqueror gets one who conquers him; the abuser wins abuse from another.

10. “Thus by the evolution of the deed, a man who spoils is spoiled in his turn.”

§ 5. The Duty of the Victor Who Has Won Peace

1. When the victor in war has won the peace, he claims the right further to degrade the vanquished, if not to enslave him. The Buddha had a totally different view on the matter. In his view, if peace had [=has]any meaning it means that the victor has a duty to use his victory for the service of the vanquished. This is what he said to the Bhikkhus on this subject:

2. “When Peace is won, the adept in warfare needs to prove an able, upright man, of gracious speech [and] kind mood, devoid of arrogance; an easy, grateful guest, no busybody, wants but few, sense-disciplined, quick-witted, bluster-free, never importunate; and let him never stoop to conduct mean or low, evoking grave rebuke.

3. “May creatures all abound in weal and peace; may all be blessed with peace always–all creatures weak or strong, all creatures great and small; creatures unseen or seen, dwelling afar or near, born or awaiting birth, may all be blessed with peace!

4. “Let none cajole or flout his fellows anywher ; let none wish others harm in dudgeon or in hate.

5. “Just as with her own life a mother shields from hurt her own, her only child, let all-embracing thoughts for all that lives be thine, an all-embracing love for all the universe in all its heights and depths and breadths, unstinted love, unmarred by hate within, not rousing enmity.

6.”So, as you stand, or walk, or sit, or lie, reflect with all your might on this: ‘Tis deemed a state divine.’”

BOOK FIVE: THE SANGH

Book Five, Part I—The Sangh

1. *The Sangh and its Organisation* — 2. *Admission to the Sangh* — 3. *The Bhikkhu and His Vows* — 4. *The Bhikkhu and Ecclesiastical Offences* — 5. *The Bhikkhu and Restraints* — 6. *The Bhikkhu and Good Conduct Rules* — 7. *The Bhikkhu and the Trial of Offences* — 8. *The Bhikkhu and Confession*

§ 1. The Sangh and its Organisation

1. The followers of the Blessed Lord were divided into two classes: Bhikkhus, and Lay Followers called Upasakas.

2. The Bhikkhus were organised into a Sangh, while the Upasakas were not.

3. The Buddhist Bhikkhu is primarily a Parivrajaka. This institution of Parivrajaka is older than that of the Buddhist Bhikkhu.

4. The old Parivrajakas were persons who had abandoned family life, and were a mere floating body of wanderers.

5. They roamed about with a view to ascertain the truth by coming into contact with various teachers and philosophers, listening to their discourses, entering into discussion on matters of ethics, philosophy, nature, mysticism, etc.

6. Some of the old type of Parivrajakas lived under a teacher until they found another. Others lived singly, without acknowledging any master.

7. Among these older type of Parivrajakas there were also women wanderers. The female Parivrajakas sometimes lived with men Parivrajakas; sometimes they lived alone and by themselves.

8. These old type of Parivrajakas had no Sangh, had no rules of discipline, and had no ideal to strive for.

9. It was for the first time that the Blessed Lord organised his followers into a Sangh or fraternity, and gave them rules of discipline, and set before them an ideal to pursue and realise.

§2. Admission to the Sangh

1. The Sangh was open to all.

2. There was no bar of caste.

3. There was no bar of sex.

4. There was no bar of status.

5. Caste had no place in the Sangh.

6. Social status had no place in the Sangh.

7. Inside the Sangh all were equal.

8. Inside the Sangh, rank was regulated by worth and not by birth.

9. As the Blessed Lord said, the Sangh was like the ocean, and the Bhikkhus were like the rivers that fell into the ocean.

10. The river has its separate name and separate existence.

11. But once the river entered the ocean, it lost its separate name and separate existence.

12. It becomes one with the rest.

13. Same is the case with the Sangh. When a Bhikkhu entered the Sangh, he became one with the rest, like the water of the ocean.

14. He lost his caste. He lost his status; so said the Lord.

15. The only distinction observed inside the Sangh was that of sex. The Bhikkhu Sangh was separate in its organisation from the Bhikkhuni Sangh.

16. The entrants into the Sangh were divided into two classes: Shramaneras and Bhikkhus.

17. Anyone below twenty could become a Shramanera.

18. By taking the trisaranas and by taking the ten precepts, a boy becomes a Shramanera.

19. “I follow the Buddha; I follow the Dhamma; and I follow the Sangh”—are the Trisaranas.

20. “I shall abstain from killing; I shall not commit theft; I shall follow Brahmacharya; I shall not tell [an] untruth; I shall abstain from drink.”

21. “I shall abstain from taking food at an untimely hour; I shall abstain from indecent and immoral acts; I shall abstain from ornamenting and decorating myself; I shall abstain from luxuries; I shall abstain from the love of gold and silver.”

22. These are the ten precepts.

23. A Shramanera can leave the Sangh at any time and become a layman. A Shramanera is attached [to a] Bhikkhu, and spends his time in the service of the Bhikkhu. He is not a person who has taken Parivraja.

24. The status of a Bhikkhu has to be reached in two stages. The first stage is called Parivraja, and the second stage is called Upasampada. It is after Upasampada that he becomes a Bhikkhu.

25. A candidate who wishes to take Parivraja, with a view ultimately to become a Bhikkhu, has to seek a Bhikkhu who has the right to act as an Uppadhya. A Bhikkhu can become an Uppadhya only after he has spent at least ten years as a Bhikkhu.

26. Such a candidate, if accepted by the Uppadhya, is called a Parivrajaka, and has to remain in the service and tutelage of the Uppadhya.

27. After the period of tutelage ends, it is his Uppadhya who has to propose the name of his student to a meeting of the Sangh specially called for the purpose, for Upasampada; and the student must request the Sangh for Upasampada.

28. The Sangh must be satisfied that he is a fit and a proper person to be made a Bhikkhu. For this purpose, there is a set of questions which the candidate has to answer.

29. Only when the Sangh grants permission, that Upasampada is granted and the person becomes a Bhikkhu.

30. The rules regulating entry into the Bhikkhuni Sangh are more or less the same as the rules regulating the entry into the Bhikkhu Sangh.

§ 3. The Bhikkhu and His Vows

1. A layman or a Shramanera takes precepts. His obligation is to follow them.

2. A Bhikkhu, besides taking precepts, takes them also as vows which he must not break. If he breaks them, he becomes liable to punishment.

3. A Bhikkhu vows to remain celebate.

4. A Bhikkhu vows not to commit theft.

5. A Bhikkhu vows not to boast.

6. A Bhikkhu vows not to kill or take life.

7. A Bhikkhu vows not to own anything except what the rules allow.

8. No Bhikkhu is to possess more than the following eight articles:—

(1) Three pieces of cloth to cover his body:(i) [a] lower garment called Antarvaska; (ii) [an] upper garment called Uttarasang; (iii) [a] covering garment against cold called Sanghati.

(2) A girdle for the loins.

(3) An alms-bowl.

(4) A razor.

(5) A needle.

(6) A water-strainer.

9. A Bhikkhu takes the vow of poverty. He must beg for his food. He must live on alms. He must sustain himself only on one meal a day. Where there is no Vihar built for the Sangh, he must live under a tree.

10. A Bhikkhu does not take a vow of obedience. Outward respect and courtesy to his superiors is expected from the novice. His own salvation and his usefulness as a teacher depend on his self-culture. He is to obey not his superior, but the Dhamma. His superior has no supernatural gift of wisdom or of absolution. He must stand or fall by himself. For that he must have freedom of thought.

11. Any breach of a vow taken by a Bhikkhu results in an offence of Parajika. The punishment for Parajika is expulsion from the Sangh.

§ 4. The Bhikkhu and Ecclesiastical Offences

1. Any breach of the vows taken by a Bhikkhu is an offence against the Dhamma.

2. In addition to these offences, there were certain other offences to which he was also liable. They were called Sanghadisesa, “ecclesiastical offences.”

3. The list of such offences included in the Vinaya Pitaka are thirteen.

4. They are allied to the Parajika.

§ 5. The Bhikkhu and Restraints

1. Besides sailing [=steering] clear of offences, a Bhikkhu must observe certain restrictions, and cannot be as free as others.

2. One set of such restrictions are called Nissagiya-pacittiya. It contains 26 restrictions to be observed by the Bhikkhu.

3. They relate to accepting gifts of robes, woollen mats, bowls, and medical requisites.

4. They also relate to the acceptance of gold and silver, [and] engagement of a monk in buying and selling, and appropriation of property given to the Sangh to himself.

5. The punishment for [a] breach of these restrictions is restoration (nissagiya) and expression of repentance (pacittiya).

6. Besides these restrictions there are other restrictions which a Bhikkhu has to observe. They are called pacittiya. They number ninety-two.

§ 6. The Bhikkhu and Good Conduct Rules

1. A Bhikkhu must behave well. He should be a model person in his mode and manner of behaviour.

2. In order to secure this purpose, the Blessed Lord framed a number of Conduct Rules.

3. These Good Conduct Rules were called Sekhiya Dhamma. They number seventy-five.

§ 7. The Bhikkhu and the Trial of Offences

1. The enactment of these acts and omissions were [=was] not a mere formality. They were legal in substance, involving a definite charge, trial, and punishment.

2. No Bhikkhu could be punished without a trial by a regularly constituted Court.

3. The Court was to be constituted by the Bhikkhus resident at the place where an offence had taken place.

4. No trial could take place without a proper number of Bhikkhus required to constitute a Court.

5. No trial would be legal without a definite charge.

6. No trial could be legal if it did not take place in the presence of the accused.

7. No trial could be legal if the accused had not been given the fullest opportunity to defend himself.

8. The following punishments could be awarded against a guilty Bhikkhu: (i) Tarjaniya Karma (warn and discharge); (ii) Niyasha Karma (declaring insane); (iii) Pravrajniya Karma (expulsion from the Sangh); (iv) Utskhepniya Karma (boycott); (v) Parivasa Karma (expulsion from Vihar).

9. Expulsion may be followed by abbana karma. Abbana Karma means annulment of dismemberment [=expulsion]. It may be followed after granting of pardon granted by the Sangh, after being satisfied with the proper performance of Parivasa Karma.

§ 8. The Bhikkhu and Confession

1. The most original and unique institution created by the Blessed Lord in connection with the organisation of the Bhikkhus was the introduction of Confession, called uposath.

2. The Blessed Lord realized that it was possible to enforce what he had laid down as offences. But he had laid down certain restrictions which were not offences. He said that the restrictions were most intimately connected with building up of character and maintaining character; and that there was equal necessity to see that they were observed.

3. But the Lord could find no effective way of enforcing them. He therefore thought of Confession in open [=public] as a means of organising the Bhikkhu’s conscience and making it act as a sentinel to guard him against taking a wrong or false step.

4. The Confession was confined to the transgressions of restrictions (which were called Patimokha).

5. For a Confession there was to be a meeting of the Bhikkhus of a given locality. There were to be three such meetings in a fortnight, one each on chaturdashi, panchadasi, and ashatam; on that day, the Bhikkhus may fast. That is why the day is also called uposath.

6. At the meeting a Bhikkhu reads the restrictions, one by one, contained in the Patimokha. After reading a restriction, he says to the assembled Bhikkhus, “I take it that none of you have transgressed this Rule, that is why you are silent.” He says this three times. Then [he] deals with the next restriction.

7. A similar Confessional meeting is required of the Bhikhhuni Sangh.

8. On a Confession a charge and trial may follow.

9. On a failure to Confess, any Bhikkhu may report a transgression, if he was a witness to it; and then a charge and trial may follow.

Book Five, Part II—The Bhikkhu: the Buddha’s Conception of Him

1. *Buddha’s Conception of What a Bhikkhu Should Be* — 2. *The Bhikkhu and the Ascetic* — 3. *The Bhikkhu and the Brahmin* — 4. *The Bhikkhu and the Upasaka*

§ 1. Buddha’s Conception of What a Bhikkhu Should Be

1. The Buddha has himself told the Bhikkhus what he expected of them as Bhikkhus. This is what he has said:

2. “He who wishes to put on the yellow dress without having cleansed himself from sin, who disregards also temperance and truth, is unworthy of the yellow dress.

3. “But he who has cleansed himself from sin, is well grounded in all virtues, and [is] endowed also with temperance and truth, he is indeed worthy of the yellow dress.

4. “A man is not a mendicant (Bhikkhu) simply because he asks others for alms; he who adopts the whole law is a Bhikkhu, not he who only begs.

5. “He who is above evil, who is chaste, who with care passes through the world, he indeed is called a Bhikkhu.

6. “Not only by discipline and vows, not only by much learning, not by entering into a trance, not by sleeping alone, do I earn the happiness of release which no worldling can know. O Bhikkhu, he who has obtained the extinction of desires, has obtained confidence.

7. “The Bhikkhu who controls his mouth, who speaks wisely and calmly, who teaches the meaning of the law, his word is sweet.

8. “He who dwells in the. law, delights in the law, meditates on the law, recollects the law, that Bhikkhu will never fall away from the true law.

9. “Let him not despise what he has received, nor ever envy others; a mendicant who envies others does not obtain peace of mind.

10. “A Bhikkhu who, though he receives little, does not despise what he has received, even the gods will praise him, if his life is pure, and if he is not slothful.

11. “He who never identifies himself with name and form, and does not grieve over what is no more, he indeed is called a Bhikkhu.

12. “The Bhikkhu who behaves with kindness, who is happy in the doctrine of Buddha, will reach Nibbana–happiness arising from the cessation of natural inclinations.

13. “O Bhikkhu, empty this boat! If emptied, it will go quickly; having cut off passion and hatred, thou wilt go to Nibbana.

14. “Cut off the five (fetters), leave the five, rise above the five. A Bhikkhu who has escaped from the five fetters, he is called Oghatinna, ’saved from the flood’.

15. “Meditate, O Bhikkhu, and be not heedless! Do not direct thy thought to what gives pleasure.

16. “Without knowledge there is no meditation; without meditation there is no knowledge; he who has knowledge and meditation is near unto Nibbana.

17. “A Bhikkhu who has entered his empty house, and whose mind is tranquil, feels a more than human delight when he sees the Dhamma clearly.

18. “And this is the beginning here for a wise Bhikku: watchfulness over the senses, contentedness, restraint under the Dhamma; keep noble friends whose life is pure, and who are not slothful.

19. “Let him live on charity, let him be perfect in his duties; then in the fulness of delight he will make an end of suffering.

20. “Rouse thyself by thyself, examine thyself by thyself; thus self-protected and attentive wilt thou live happily, O Bhikkhu.

21. “For self is the lord of self, self is the refuge of self; therefore curb thyself, as the merchant curbs a noble horse.

22. “A Bhikkhu (mendicant) who delights in earnestness, who looks with fear on thoughtlessness, moves about like fire, burning all his fetters, small or large.

23. “A Bhikkhu (mendicant) who delights in reflection, who looks with fear on thoughtlessness, cannot fall away (from his perfect state)–he is close upon Nibbana.”

24. The disciples of Gautama (Buddha) are always well awake, and their thoughts day and night are always set on Buddha,

25. The disciples of Gautama are always well awake, and their thoughts day and night are always set on the church.

26. The disciples of Gautama are always well awake, and their thoughts day and night are always set on the Dhamma.

27. The disciples of Gautama are always well awake, and their thoughts day and night are always set on their body.

28. The disciples of Gautama are always well awake, and their minds day and night always delight in compassion.

29. The disciples of Gautama are always well awake, and their minds day and night always delight in meditation.

30. It is hard to leave the world (to become a friar), it is hard to enjoy the world; hard is the monastery, painful are the houses; painful it is to dwell with equals (to share everything in common), and the itinerant mendicant is beset with pain.

31. A man full of faith, if endowed with virtue and glory, is respected, whatever place he may choose.

§ 2. The Bhikkhu and the Ascetic

1. Is the Bhikkhu an ascetic? The answer is in the negative.

2. This negative answer has been given by the Blessed Lord himself, in a discussion withNigrodha the wanderer.

3. The Exalted One was once staying near Rajagraha, on the Vulture’s Peak. Now at that time there was sojourning in Queen Udumbarika’s Park assigned to the wanderers, the wanderer Nigrodha, together with a great company of wanderers.

4. Now the Exalted One, descending from the Vulture’s Peak came to the Peacock’s Feeding-Ground on the bank of the Sumagadha, and there walked to and fro in the open air. Then Nigrodha saw him thus walking, and on seeing him he called his company to order, saying: “Be still, sirs, and make no noise. The Samana Gautama is by the bank of the Sumagadha.” When he had said this the wanderers kept silence.

5. Then the Exalted One went up to Nigrodha the wanderer, and Nigrodha spake thus to him: “Let the Lord, the Exalted One, approach. Welcome is the Lord, the Exalted One! Long has the Lord, the Exalted One, taken ere deciding on this step of coming hither. May it please the Lord, the Exalted One, to take a seat. Here is one ready.”

6. The Exalted One sat down on the seat made ready, and Nigrodha, taking a low seat, sat beside him.

7. Thereupon Nigrodha said to the Exalted One, “As the Samana Gautama has come to out assembly, we would like to ask him this question: ‘What, Lord, is this religion of the Exalted One, wherein he trains his disciples, and which those disciples, so trained by the Exalted One as to win comfort, acknowledge to be their utmost support and the fundamental principles of righteousness?’”

8. “Difficult is it, Nigrodha, for one of another view, of another persuasion, of another confession, without practice and without teaching, to understand that wherein I train my disciples, and which they, so trained as to win comfort, acknowledge to be their utmost support and the fundamental principle of righteousness.

9. “But ask me, Nigrodha, a question about your own doctrine, about austere scrupulousness of life: in what does the fulfilment, in what does the non-fulfilment of these self-mortifications consist?”

10. Then Nigrodha spake thus to the Exalted One: “We, Lord, profess self-mortifying austerities; we hold them to be essential; we cleave to them. In what does the fulfilment, in what does the nonfulfilment of them consist?”

11. “Suppose, Nigrodha, that an ascetic goes naked, is of certain loose habits, licks his hands, respects no ‘approach, sir’, nor ’stop, sir’; accepts nothing expressly brought, nor expressly prepared, nor any invitations. He accepts nothing taken from [the] mouth of [a] cooking-pot; nor placed within the threshold, nor within a mortar, nor among sticks, nor within a quern; nor anything from two eating together, nor from a pregnant woman, nor from a nursing mother; nor from a woman in intercourse with a man; nor food collected in drought; nor from where a dog is; nor from where flies are swarming; nor will he accept fish or meat; nor drink strong drink, nor intoxicants, nor gruel. He is either a one-houser, a one-mouthful man; or a two -ouser, a two-mouthful man; or a seven-houser, a seven-mouthful man. He maintains himself on one alms, on two, or on seven. He takes food once a day, or once every two days, or once every seven days. Thus does he dwell addicted to the the practice of taking food according to rule, at regular intervals, up to even half a month. He feeds either on pot-herbs, or wild rice, or nivara seeds, or leather parings, or on hata, or on the powder in rice rusks, on rice-scum, on flour or oil-seeds, on grasses, on cowdung, or fruits and roots from the wood, or on windfalls. He wears coarse hempen cloth, coarse mixture cloth, discarded corpse-cloths, discarded rags, or tirita-bark cloth; or again he wears antelope-hide, or strips of the same netted, or kusa fibre, or bark garments, or shale cloth, or a human-hair blanket, or a horse-hair blanket, or an owl’s-feather garment. He is a hair-and-beard plucker, addicted to the practice of plucking out both; a stander-up; a croucher on heels, addicted to exerting himself (to move forward) when thus squatting; a bed-of-thorns man, putting iron spikes or thorns on his couch; he uses a plank-bed; sleeps on the ground; sleeps only on one side; is a dust-and-dirt wearer and an open-air-man; a where-you-will sitter; a filth-eater, addicted to the practice of eating such; a non-drinker, addicted to the practice of drinking (cold water); an even-for-third-time-man.

12. “After having done this, Nigrodha,” the Blessed Lord said, “What think you, Nigrodha? If these things be so, is the austerity of self-mortification carried out, or is it not?” ” Truly, Lord, if these things be so, the austerity of self-mortification is carried out.”

13. “Now I, Nigrodha, affirm that austerity by self-mortification thus carried out, involves blemish in several ways.”

14. “In what way. Lord, do you affirm that blemish is involved?”

15. “In case, Nigrodha, when an ascetic undertakes a course of austerity, he through that course becomes self-complacent, his aim is satisfied. Now this, Nigrodha, becomes a blemish in the ascetic.

16. “And then again, Nigrodha, when an ascetic undertakes a course of austerity, he through that undertaking exalts himself and despises others. This, too, becomes a blemish in the ascetic.

17. “And again, Nigrodha, when an ascetic undertakes a course of austerity, he through that undertaking becomes inebriated and infatuated, and grows careless. This, too, becomes a blemish in the ascetic.

18. “And again, Nigrodha, when an ascetic undertakes a course of austerity, it procures for him gifts, attention and fame. Thereby he becomes complacent and his aim is satisfied. This, too, becomes a blemish in the ascetic.

19. “And again, Nigrodha, by the winning of gifts, attention, and fame, the ascetic exalts himself and despises others. This, too, becomes a blemish in the ascetic.

20. “And again, Nigrodha, by the winning of gifts, attention, and fame, he becomes inebriated and infatuated, and grows careless. This, too, becomes a blemish in the ascetic.

21. “And again, Nigrodha, when an ascetic undertakes a course of austerity, he comes to make a distinction in foods, saying: ‘This suits me; this doesn’t suit me’. The latter kind he deliberately rejects. Over the former he waxes greedy and infatuated, and cleaves to them, seeing not the danger in them, discerning them not as unsafe, and so enjoys them. This, too, becomes a blemish in the ascetic.

22. “And again, Nigrodha, because of his longing for gifts, attentions, and fame, he thinks: ‘Rajas will pay me attentions, and so will their officials; so too will nobles, Brahmins, house-holders, and founders of schools. This, too, becomes a blemish in the ascetic.

23. “And again, Nigrodha, an asectic gets grumbling at some recluse or Brahmin, saying: ‘That man lives on all sorts of things: things grown from tubers, or shoots, or berries, or joints, or fifthly, from seeds, munching them all up together with that wheel-less thunderbolt of a jawbone–and they call him a holy man!’ This, too becomes a blemish in the ascetic.

24. “And again, Nigrodha, an ascetic sees a certain recluse or Brahmin receiving attentions, being revered, honoured, and presented with offerings by the citizens. And seeing this he thinks: ‘The citizens pay attention to this fellow who lives in luxury; they revere and honour him, and present him with offerings, while to me who, as ascetic, lives a really austere life, they pay no attentions, nor reverence, nor honour, nor offerings.’ And so he cherishes envy and grudging at the citizens. This, too, becomes a blemish in the ascetic.

25. “And again, Nigrodha, the ascetic affects the mysterious. When asked: ‘Do you approve of this?’ he, not approving, says: ‘I do’, or approving, says, ‘I do not’. Thus he consciously tells untruths. This, too, becomes a blemish in the ascetic.

26. “And again, Nigrodha, the ascetic is liable to lose his temper and bear enmity. This, too, becomes a blemish in the ascetic.

27. “And again, Nigrodha, the ascetic is liable to be hypocritical and deceitful, as well as envious and grudging; he becomes cunning and crafty, hard-hearted and vain; he entertains evil wishes and becomes captive to them; he entertains false opinions, becomes possessed of metempirical dogma, misinterprets his experience, is avaricious and adverse from renunciation. This, too, becomes a blemish in the ascetic.

28. “What think you of this, Nigrodha? Are these things blemishes in the austerities of self-mortification, or are they not?”

29. “Verily, Lord, these things are blemishes in the austerities of self-mortification. It is possible, Lord, that an ascetic may be possessed even of all these blemishes, much more by one or other of them.”

30. The Bhikkhus are not to be guilty of these blemishes.

§3. The Bhikkhu and the Brahmin

1. Is the Bhikkhu the same as the Brahmin? The answer to this question is also in the negative.

2. The discussion of the subject has not been concentrated at any one place. It is scattered all over. But the points of distinction can be easily summed up.

3. A Brahmin is a priest. His main function is to perform certain ceremonies connected with birth, marriage, and death.

4. These ceremonies become necessary because of the doctrine of original sin, which requires ceremonies to wash it off, and because of the belief in God and in Soul.

5. For these ceremonies a priest is necessary. A Bhikkhu does not believe in original sin, in God and Soul. There are, therefore, no ceremonies to be performed. He is, therefore, not a priest.

6. A Brahmin is born. A Bhikkhu is made.

7. A Brahmin has a caste. A Bhikkhu has no caste.

8. Once a Brahmin always a Brahmin. No sin, no crime, can unmake a Brahmin.

9. But once a Bhikkhu is not always a Bhikkhu. A Bhikkhu is made. So he can be unmade, if by his conduct he makes himself unworthy of remaining a Bhikkhu.

10. No mental or moral training is necessary for being a Brahmin. All that is expected (only expected) of him is to know his religious lore.

11. Quite different is the case of the Bhikkhu; mental and moral training is his life-blood.

12. A Brahmin is free to acquire [an] unlimited amount of property for himself. A Bhikkhu, on the other hand, cannot,

13. This is no small difference. Property is the severest limitation upon the mental and moral independence of man, both in respect of thought and action. It produces a conflict between the two. That is why the Brahmin is always opposed to change. For to him, a change means loss of power and loss of pelf.

14. A Bhikkhu, having no property, is mentally and morally free. In his case, there are no personal interests which can stand in the way of honesty and integrity.

15. They are Brahmins. Nonetheless, each Brahmin is an individual by himself. There is no religious organisation to which he is subordinate. A Brahmin is a law unto himself. They are bound by common interests which are material.

16. A Bhikkhu on the other hand is always a member of the Sangh. It is inconceivable that there could be a Bhikkhu without his being a member of the Sangh. A Bhikkhu is not a law unto himself. He is subordinate to the Sangh. The Sangh is a spiritual organisation.

§ 4. The Bhikkhu and the Upasaka

1. In the Dhamma, there is a marked distinction between the Dhamma of the Bhikku and the Dhamma of the Upasaka or the layman.

2. The Bhikkhu is bound to celibacy. Not so the Upasaka. He can marry.

3. The Bhikkhu can have no home. He can have no family. Not so the Upasaka. The Upasaka can have a home and can have a family.

4. The Bhikkhu is not to have any property. But an Upasaka can have property.

5. The Bhikkhu is forbidden from taking life. Not so the Upasaka. He may.

6. The Panchasilas are common to both. But to the Bhikkhu they are vows. He cannot break them without incurring [a] penalty. To the Upasaika they are precepts to be followed.

7. The Bhikkhu’s observance of the Panchasilas is compulsory. Their observance by the Upasakas is voluntary.

8. Why did the Blessed Lord make such a distinction? There must be some good reason for it. For the Blessed Lord would not do anything unless there was some good reason for it.

9. The reason for this distinction is nowhere explicitly stated by the Blessed Lord. It is left to be inferred. All the same, it is necessary to know the reason for this distinction.

10. There is no doubt that the Blessed Lord wanted through his Dhamma to lay the foundation of a kingdom of righteousness on earth. That is why he preached his Dhanmia to all without distinction, to Bhikkus as well as to laymen.

11. But the Blessed Lord also knew that merely preaching the Dhamma to the common men would not result in the creation of that ideal society based on righteousness.

12. An ideal must be practical, and must be shown to be practicable. Then and then only [do] people strive after it and try to realise it.

13. To create this striving, it is necessary to have a picture of a society working on the basis of the ideal, and thereby proving to the common man that the ideal was not impracticable but on the other hand realisable.

14. The Sangh is a model of a society realising the Dhamma preached by the Blessed Lord.

15. This is the reason why the Blessed Lord made this distinction between the Bhikkhu and the Upasaka. The Bhikkhu was the torch-bearer of the Buddha’s ideal society, and the Upasaka was to follow the Bhikkhu as closely as he could.

16. There is also another question that requires an answer. What is the function of the Bhikkhu?

17. Is the Bhikkhu to devote himself to self-culture, or is he to serve the people and guide them?

18. He must discharge both the functions.

19. Without self-culture he is not fit to guide. Therefore he must himself be a perfect, best man, [a] righteous man and an enlightened man. For this he must practice self-culture.

20. A Bhikkhu leaves his home. But he does not retire from the world. He leaves home so that he may have the freedom and the opportunity to serve those who are attached to their homes, but whose life is full of sorrow, misery, and unhappiness, and who cannot help themselves.

21. Compassion, which is the essence of the Dhamma, requires that everyone shall love and serve, and the Bhikkhu is not exempt from it.

22. A Bhikkhu who is indifferent to the woes of mankind, however perfect in self-culture, is not at all a Bhikkhu. He may be something else but he is not a Bhikkhu.

Book Five, Part III—The Duties of the Bhikkhu

1. *The Bhikkhu’s Duty to Convert* — 2. *Conversion Not to be by Miracles* — 3. *Conversion Not to be by Force* — 4. *A Bhikkhu Must Fight to Spread Virtue (Dhamma)*

1. The Bhikkhu’s Duty to Convert

1. The news of the conversion of Yasa and his four friends to the Dhamma spread far and wide. The result was that lay persons belonging to the highest families in the country, and to those next to the highest, came to be instructed in the doctrine of the Blessed One, and to take refuge in him and in his Dhamma.

2. Many people were coming to him to receive instruction in the Dhamma. The Lord knew that it was difficult for him personally to give instruction to each one. He also felt the necessity of organising [the] Parivrajakas, whose number was swelling every day, into a religious order which he called the Sangh.

3. He accordingly made the Parivrajakas the members of the Sangh, and framed rules of discipline called vinaya, and made them binding upon the members of the Sangh.

4. The Blessed Lord later on laid down two stages to be undergone by a disciple before he became a Bhikkhu. First a disciple became a Parivrajaka and remained a Parivrajaka for a certain number of years, attached to a Bhikkhu and remaining in training under him. After his training period was over, he was allowed to take Upasampada if he satisfied a body of examiners that he was fit for it. It is only then that he was allowed to become a Bhikkhu and a member of the Sangh.

5. There was no time in the early stages of the Dhamma to make such arrangements. The Lord, therefore, made them Bhikkhus and sent them out as Missionaries to spread his religion to anywhere and everywhere.

6. And before sending them out, the Blessed One said to the Bhikkhus: “I am delivered, O Bhikkhus, from all fetters, human and divine. You, O Bhikkhus, from all fetters, human and divine. Go ye now, and wander for the gain of the many, for the welfare of the many, out of compassion for the world; for the good, for the gain and for the welfare of gods and men.

7. “Let not two of you go the same way. Preach, Bhikkhus, the doctrine which is glorious in the beginning, glorious in the middle, glorious at the end, in the spirit and in the letter; proclaim a consummate, perfect, and pure life of holiness.

8. “Go then through every country, convert those not yet converted; throughout the world that lies burnt up with sorrow, teach everywhere; (instruct) those lacking right instruction.

9. “Go where there are great Rishis, royal Rishis, Brahman Rishis too; these all dwell there, influencing men according to their schools.

10. “Go, therefore, each one travelling by himself; filled with compassion, go! rescue and receive.”

11. The Blessed Lord also told them:

12. “That the gift of the Dhamma exceeds all gifts; the sweetness of the Dhamma exceeds all sweetness; the delight in the Dhamma exceeds all delights.

13. “The fields are damaged by weeds, mankind is damaged by passion; therefore a gift of Dhamma brings great reward.

14. “The fields are damaged by weeds, mankind is damaged by hatred; therefore a gift of Dhamma brings great reward.

15. “The fields are damaged by weeds; mankind is damaged by vanity; therefore the gift of Dhamma brings great reward.

16. “The fields are damaged by weeds, mankind is damaged by lust; therefore a gift of Dhamma brings great reward.”

17. Then the sixty Bhikkhus, receiving orders to carry on the mission to propagate the Dhamma, went through every land.

18. The Lord gave them further instruction in the matter of conversions.