Dhammapada
Verse 168 .

 The Righteous Are Happy - Here And Hereafter

Verse 168. The Righteous Are Happy - Here
And Hereafter

Rouse yourself, be diligent,
in Dhamma faring well.
Who dwells in Dhamma’s happy
in this birth and the next.

Explanation: Wake up to reality; do not be
delude. Live in accordance with reality. The realistic person lives happily in
this world and in the next.

VI.

anatomy

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

5.1 Result of the Study

The
objectives of this thesis are to study, compare and contrast the

twelve
Àyatanas in the context of science, which is as described in the first

chapter.
The second chapter discussed the background and significance of

the
twelve Àyatanas as the gateways that allow us to experience and perceive

the
world. In order to have a deeper understanding of the twelve Àyatanas,

the
overall concept of the term Àyatana is explored, both in Sanskrit and
PÀli

languages.
The result of the study shows that the concept of the twelve

Àyatanas
did not exist in the Vedic tradition. Instead, the
concept was

developed
by the Buddha into a central Buddhist teaching. These contents

can
be found in many teachings of the Buddha, including the four types of

relations
mentioned in chapter II and the PaÇiccasamuppÀda. The twelve

Àyatanas
are a cause of dukkha and are dukkha themselves,
since they are under

the
law of the Tilakkhaõa. However with proper trainings, the twelve Àyatanas

become
the powerful and necessary tools to reach the Enlightenment.

The
third chapter is the exposition of the twelve Àyatanas in the

Buddhist
scriptures. As we already know that the twelve Àyatanas are

separated
into the internal and the external Àyatanas. In order to find their

parallels
in science, the sensory receptors and the sense stimuli are also

discussed
here. In addition, the primary element of the twelve Àyatanas, the

mahÀbhÂtarÂpa, is
studied in the aspect of its etymology.

In
the fourth chapter, the internal and the external Àyatanas are

compared
and contrasted with the sensory receptors and the sense stimuli,

respectively.
The result of the study shows that there are some parallels

between
the description of the twelve Àyatanas in the Buddhist scriptures and

the
information of the sensory receptors and the sense stimuli in science.

There
are some points that should be noted here that:

1.
In Buddhism, the teaching of the Buddha, including the

concept
of the twelve Àyatanas, had been developed by the

commentators
over time. An example can be seen from the

concept
of the cakkhÀyatana that is developed to be the sevenlayered

structure
of the cakkhuppasÀda by the commentators.

2.
The goal of the Buddha and the goal of the scientists are

different.
The Buddha emphasizes on the importance of the

cessation
of the dukkha. He teaches his followers only what

benefits
to pave a way to nibbÀna. However, the scientists

emphasize
on the exploration of knowledge in depth, which

does
not benefit the way of the holy life. The goal of

Buddhism
is to realize nibbÀna. In contrary, the goal of

science
is to categorize and classify the physical world. An

example
can be seen from the information of the saddÀyatana

and
sound.

a.
In Buddhism, saddÀyatana is taught, so human beings

would
realize its benefit as a tool to experience the

world
and its danger as a cause of the arising of a

fetter.

b.
In science, sound is studied and analyzed in physical

detail.
The scientists pay their attention to study how

sound
arises, how fast it can travel, the effect of sound

on
living beings, etc. In addition, sound is used in the

treatment
of physical and mental conditions as an

alternative
medicine.

The
scientists study with passion and are struggle for more

knowledge.
The knowledge in science seems to grow and

change
everyday with new discoveries; however, this type of

knowledge
will never lead us to the real purpose of our lives,

which
in Buddhism is known as nibbÀna. NibbÀna is the state

where
all defilements are extinct. The knowledge in science

could
not lead humans to the state of nibbÀna. The scientists

can
be compared to MÀluôkyÀputta in the CÂÒamÀluôkya Sutta,

who
does not satisfy with the Buddha’s teaching and would

like
to learn more what does not lead to the Enlightenment.

3.
The Buddha emphasizes the importance of both the material

phenomena
(rÂpa) and the mental phenomena (nÀma).

However,
the scientists emphasize their study mostly on the

material
phenomena. Even though, some scientists may try

to
study the mental phenomena, however, the result of the

study
may not be widely accepted since it can not be proved

by
the scientific instruments. As a result, the role of the mind

and
mental stimuli are still ambiguous in science. This is

where
science lags behind Buddhism.

In
addition, this thesis reflects the facts that

1.
The mind can perceive an artificial object through the

stimulation
of the electrical signals and the chemical

substances,
without sensing the object through the first five

internal
Àyatanas. This is a method that the scientists use to

make
people feel happy and peaceful by using some sorts of

electrical
devices or drugs. The happiness that is acquired by

this
method is dependent on the external stimuli. However,

the
Buddha teaches his followers to find happiness and

peaceful
in oneself, without depending on the external

stimuli.

2.
With the advancement of new technologies, the

transplantation
of physical organs is possible. The process of

the
transplantation does not have an effect on human

personality.
Even a person has his heart transplanted; his

personality
is still unaffected by the new heart.

In
Buddhism, a human consists of the five Aggregates. From the

facts
above, it shows that the rÂpakkhandha is just only a congregation of

organs,
which are transplantable. In addition, these facts remind me of what

was
spoken by bhikkhunÁ VajirÀ in the VajirÀ Sutta that:

Just
as, with an assemblage of parts,

The
word ‘chariot’ is used,

So,
when the aggregates exist,

There
is the convention ‘a being.’

Bodhi
(trans.)

The
five aggregates exist in both mundane people and arahants who

have
the substratum of life remaining. What makes them different is the

arahants
do not cling to the five aggregates, while the mundane people still

do
cling to the five aggregates. MahÀsi SayÀdaw mentions in the book of

Fundamentals
of Vipassana Meditation that the clinging to the five aggregates

arises
from the manifestation of the interaction between the six internal sense

bases
and their corresponding external sense bases. He states that viððÀõa,

vedanÀ, saððÀ,
and saôkhÀra perceived at the moment of the interaction are

merely
of the mental group. They are neither a living entity nor self. By

correctly
attending the twelve Àyatanas as they really are, insight knowledge

will
be developed, and the cycle of rebirths will be destroyed.

5.2 Benefits of the Study

The
result of the study of this thesis answers all questions that I set

up
in the first chapter and obtain the advantages as I expected, which are:

1.Gaining
a deeper understanding of the term Àyatana both in its

general
and in its particular aspects.

2.Gaining
a clearer understanding of the twelve Àyatanas in the

Buddhist
scriptures and the sensory receptors and the sense stimuli in science.

3.Establishing
an awareness of the correlation between Buddhism

and
science.

This
thesis confirms that Buddhism is the religion that copes with

modern
scientific needs, as Einstein said. Buddhism is neither a mystic

experience
nor a psychic thrill. It is a religion with profound teachings taught

by a
man whom we respect him as the Buddha. The world of Buddhism and

the
world of science can be harmonized, even though they seem so different.

See
Appendix for the benefit that is derived from the study of the twelve

Àyatanas
in relation to the PaÇiccasamuppÀda.

5.3 Suggestions for Further Research

An
interesting area in the exposition of the twelve Àyatanas is to

compare
and contrast the concept of the twelve Àyatanas among different

schools
of Buddhism. All schools of Buddhism do not recognize the same

concept
of the twelve Àyatanas, which is one of the central TheravÀdin Buddhist

teachings.
An example can be seen from the different concept of the

dhammÀyatana
between the TheravÀda tradition and the VaibhÀÈika tradition.

The dhammÀyatana
in the TheravÀdin Abbhidhammic innovation consists of fiftytwo

cetasikas,
sixteen sukhumarÂpas, and nibbÀna. However, the VaibhÀÈika

recognizes
only one dharmÀyatana-rÂpa, which is known as avijðapti-rÂpa.

Other
schools, such as the SarvÀstivÀda, also appear to have a slightly
different

view
of the twelve Àyatanas. The SarvÀstivÀdins combine the concept of
the

twelve
Àyatanas under the term rÂpa-dhamma. The different concepts of the

twelve
Àyatanas of each school spawn different ideas about the material and

mental
phenomena. The result of the study would lead us to understand:

1.
the early concept of the Buddhist thought;

2.
the development of the Buddhist teachings after the Buddha’s

parinibbÀna;

3.
the different concepts of nÀma-rÂpa among different schools.

I
hope that this thesis would create a good dialogue between

Buddhists
and scientists and among Buddhists of different schools

themselves.

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Alec N. “Inner Ear Anatomy.” A
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Bhikkhu, trans. “Bahiya Sutta.” The
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APPENDIX

THE PA×ICCASAMUPP°DA AND THE TWELVE °YATANAS

Since
the actual instructions of the Buddhist trainings are mostly

published
in pÀli terminologies, the knowledge derived from this thesis can be

used
to simplify the terminologies related to the twelve Àyatanas into simple

words.
Having a deeper understanding about the twelve Àyatanas leads us to

the
knowledge how to cease the cycle of rebirth by destroying the chain of

conditions
in the PaÇiccasamuppÀda.

As
mentioned in chapter II, the internal Àyatanas are a condition in

the PaÇiccasamuppÀda
which is the teaching about a conditional phenomena

leading
to the cycle of rebirth as shown in figure 83. The true knowledge

about
the twelve Àyatanas will help us to destroy the chain of conditions in
the

PaÇiccasamuppÀda,
since the internal Àyatanas are one of its factors. As shown

in
the second chapter, the process of experiencing in psychology starts from

the
arising of phassa, which is the product of the congregation of a sense
base,

its
object, and consciousness. Bhaddanta °sabhamahÀthera suggests that the

phassa
has to be ceased in order to destroy the cycle of the PaÇiccasamuppÀda.I

This
is one of the teachings that the Buddha taught BÀhiya about the proper

training
regarding all sense experiences in the BÀhiya Sutta as follows:

IBhaddanta
Asabhathera, PaÇiccasamuppÀdasaôkhepakathÀ
(Chon Buri: Wat

Bhaddanta
Asabharam, n.d.), p.23. See also Chamlong Disayavanish, Chitawitthaya Khong

Khwamdapthuk, 1st ed. (Chiang Mai: Klang Wiang Kanpim
Ltd., 2544 B.E.) p. 113.

Figure 83. The PaÇiccasamuppÀda. The PaÇiccasamuppÀda
consists of 12 factors,

which
are 1-avijjÀ (ignorance), 2-saôkhÀra (mental formation), 3-viððÀõa

(consciousness),
4-nÀma-rÂpa (mind and matter), 5-saÒÀyatana (six sense bases), 6-

phassa
(contact), 7-vedanÀ (feeling), 8-taõhÀ (craving),
9-upÀdÀna (clinging), 10-bhava

(becoming),
11-jÀti (birth), and 12-jarÀ-maraõa (decay and death). Each
factor is

conditioned
by the preceding factor, and in turns, conditions the following factor.

The PaÇiccasamuppÀda
is separated into three periods; namely, past, present, and

future.
When a condition is ceased, the PaÇiccasamuppÀda stops.

Then,
Bahiya, you should train yourself thus: In reference to the seen,

there
will be only the seen. In reference to the heard, only the heard. In

reference
to the sensed, only the sensed. In reference to the cognized,

only
the cognized. That is how you should train yourself. When for you

there
will be only the seen in reference to the seen, only the heard in

reference
to the heard, only the sensed in reference to the sensed, only

the
cognized in reference to the cognized, then, Bahiya, there is no you in

terms
of that. When there is no you in terms of that, there is no you there.

When
there is no you there, you are neither here nor yonder nor between

the
two. This, just this, is the end of stress [dukkha]. II

When
a person knows the seen, the heard, etc. as they really are, the

phassa
stops. There are no more conditions for the arising of the vedanÀ.
The

cycle
of the PaÇiccasamuppÀda is broken. In order to achieve this, the person

has
to cultivate his wisdom by practicing the insight meditation. He should

develop
his mindfulness to guard the doors of sense experiences.

The MahÀsatipaÇÇhÀna
Sutta offers four main exercises to build up a

basis
of mindfulness. With the methods taught in this sutta, we have many

exercises
to practice in order to observer the various states of mind and

matter.
Examples of the exercises are shown in figure 84.

From
the figure, it shows that a person can build up a basis of

mindfulness
during the present period of the PaÇiccasamuppÀda, starting from

viððÀõa
factor to bhava factor. Examples of the practices are as
follows:

1. ViððÀõa

a. CittÀnupassanÀ:

One
can observe the states of mind by contemplating

vipÀka-cittas.
The prominent states that people can

observe
are akusalavipÀka and kusalavipÀka-cittas.

IIUd
6ff: Thanissaro Bhikkhu, trans., “Bahiya Sutta,” The Pali Canon, retrieved

29
June 2007, .

Figure 84. Examples of How to Build up the Mindfulness in the
Cycle of the PaÇiccasamuppÀda. The MahÀsatipaÇÇhÀna Sutta

offers
four exercises to build up a basis of mindfulness by observing the various
states of mind and matter in the cycle of the

PaÇiccasamuppÀda.

Observing
clinging

(upÀdÀna)

Observing
resultant consciousness

(lokÁya
vipÀka citta)

Observing
mental states

(cetasika)

Observing
the four primary

elements,
etc. (kÀyadasaka)

Observing
the six sense bases

(Àyatana)

Observing
the sense

impression
(phassa cetasika)

Observing
neutral, painful,

pleasurable
feelings (vedanÀ)

Observing
craving

(chanda
cetasika)

Observing
hindrances &

fetters
(nivaraõa & saÚyojana)

Observing
volition

(cetanÀ
cetasika)

Color Representation

KÀyÀnupassanÀ

VedanÀnupassanÀ

CittÀnupassanÀ

DhammÀnupassanÀ

Observing
themental state of

sensation
(vedanÀ cetasika)

2. NÀma-RÂpa

a. KÀyÀnupassanÀ:

One
can observe the body either in term of the analysis

of
the elements (mahÀbhÂtarÂpa) or the analysis of the

derivative
materiality (upÀdÀrÂpa).

b. CittÀnupassanÀ:

One
can observe mental states by contemplating

cetasikas.
The prominent cetasikas that can be observed

are
when rÀga, dosa, and moha arise.

3. SaÒÀyatana

a. KÀyÀnupassanÀ:

One
can focus his mind on the six internal Àyatanas.

4. Phassa

a. CittÀnupassanÀ:

One
can emphasize only on the mental state of sense

impression.
Bhaddanta °sabhamahÀthera suggests

that
the phassa should be observed in order to make it

faded
away and finally ceased in order to destroy the

cycle
of the PaÇiccasamuppÀda.

5. VedanÀ

a. VedanÀnupassanÀ:

One
can observe one’s feeling arisen from phassa,

which
includes pleasurable, painful, or neutral feelings

whether
they are accompanied by material thing or

not.

b. CittÀnupassanÀ:

VedanÀ
is also a mental state, which can be observed.

6. TaõhÀ

a. CittÀnupassanÀ:

A
person can observe his craving in term of a mental

state.

b. DhammÀnupassanÀ:

A
person also can observer his craving in term of a

factor
of hindrances (nivaraõa) or a factor of fetters

(saÚyojana).

7. UpÀdÀna

a. DhammÀnupassanÀ:

UpÀdÀna
can be observed in four ways; namely,

clinging
to sensuality, clinging to views, clinging to

mere
rule and ritual, and clinging to the ego-belief.

8. Bhava

a. CittÀnupassanÀ:

A
person can observe his volition in term of a mental

state.

What
mentioned above are only a few examples that one can follow

as a
guideline to build up one’s mindfulness. When the mind is well-trained,

the
manifestation arising from the interaction between the internal sense

bases
and the external sense bases will do no harm to that person. However,

a
beginner of this practice may be not able to contemplate of all occurrences of

the
material and the mental phenomena. A solution suggested by MahÀsi

SayÀdaw
is to contemplate or be mindful only on the most outstanding

manifestation
of either the material or the mental phenomena in the body

first.III

IIIMahÀsi
SayÀdaw, 1980, op. cit.,
p. 32.

This
thesis shows that what we see is only electromagnetic spectrum

of
light, what we hear is only the energy of vibration of molecules, what we

smell
and taste are only chemical substances, and what we touch is the feeling

that
arises because of the nerve signals inside our body. The pleasure and

displeasure
that arise is not because of these matters, but because of the

clinging
that we create by ourselves.

In
conclusion, this thesis demonstrates that there is no permanent

and
unchanging substance can be found in the twelve Àyatanas and the

elements
related to them, both the material and the mental phenomena. Any

elements
related to the twelve Àyatanas, including the process of cognition, are

subject
to impermanence and suffering and devoid of self.

BIOGRAPHY

I
was born in 1973 in Thailand. My name is Apiramon Damrongsiri.

I am
a qualified computer engineer graduated with a Master’s Degree in

computer
science from the University of Colorado at Boulder in the United

States,
received my Bachelor of computer engineering from King Mongkut’s

Institute
of Technology Ladkrabang in Thailand. I lived in the United States

for
about five years. When I studied and worked as a computer engineer in

the
States, I had a chance to experience other religious traditions, especially

Hinduism
and Christianity, and learned how these religions are different and

similar
to Buddhism. Once in a while, I joined a Buddhist meditation group

with
Westerners. This opportunity allowed me to experience a different

perspective
of thought on Buddhism.

When
returning back to Thailand, I had a chance to join vipassana

classes.
Lacking a strong background in Buddhism caused me some

difficulties
in communicating with my meditation master. The thesis is a

product
of my struggle to find a better way to express Àyatanas in better

English,
since it plays a very important role in the practice of insight

meditation.
I hope it may help other practitioners who have a background in

science
to understand how to communicate better with monks whose

foundation of thought and
belief are Buddhist tradition and religious texts.

http://www.enotes.com/buddhism-history-science-religion-reference/buddhism-history-science-religion

http://www.alanwallace.org/wellbeing.pdf

Buddhist
and Psychological

Perspectives
on Emotions and

Well-Being

Paul
Ekman,1 Richard J. Davidson,2 Matthieu Ricard,3 and B. Alan Wallace4

1University
of California, San Francisco; 2University of Wisconsin, Madison; 3Shechen
Monastery, Katmandu, Nepal; and

Santa
Barbara Institute for Consciousness Studies, Santa Barbara, California

ABSTRACT—Stimulated
by a recent meeting between

Western
psychologists and the Dalai Lama on the topic

of
destructive emotions, we report on two issues: the

achievement
of enduring happiness, what Tibetan Buddhists

call
sukha, and the nature of afflictive and nonafflictive

emotional
states and traits. A Buddhist perspective

on
these issues is presented, along with discussion of the

challenges
the Buddhist view raises for empirical research

and
theory.

KEYWORDS—Buddhism;
consciousness

Buddhist
thought, which arose more than 2,000 years ago in

Asian
cultures, holds assumptions that differ in important ways

from
modern psychology. The particular branch of Buddhist

thinking
we consider here is Indo-Tibetan, a tradition having

roots
in Indian thought and further developed by Tibetan theorists.

It
is a line of thinking that is more than 1,000 years old.

Although
different aspects of Buddhist thought have already

influenced
a number of psychologists, its challenges for research

on
emotion are not widely known. Some suggestive

convergences
between Buddhist thinking and, for example,

findings
in neurobiology, suggest the fruitfulness of integrating

a
Buddhist view into emotion research.

The
traditional languages of Buddhism, such as Pali, Sanskrit,

and
Tibetan, have no word for ‘‘emotion’’ as such. Although

discrepant
from the modern psychological research

tradition
that has isolated emotion as a distinct mental process

that
can be studied apart from other processes, the fact that

there
is no term in Buddhism for emotion is quite consistent

with
what scientists have come to learn about the anatomy of

the
brain. Every region in the brain that has been identified with

some
aspect of emotion has also been identified with aspects

of
cognition (e.g., Davidson & Irwin, 1999). The circuitry that

supports
affect and the circuitry that supports cognition are

completely
intertwined—an anatomical arrangement consistent

with
the Buddhist view that these processes cannot be separated.

We
have chosen two issues, the achievement of enduring

happiness
and the nature of afflictive emotions, to illustrate the

usefulness
of considering the Buddhist perspective in work

on
emotion. Given the space allowed, we present illustrative

examples
of possible areas for research, rather than a more

complete
discussion.

This
report is a collaborative effort of Buddhists (Matthieu

Ricard
and B. Alan Wallace) and psychologists (Paul Ekman

and
Richard J. Davidson). Our report grew out of an extraordinary

meeting
with His Holiness the Dalai Lama, in Dharamsala,

India,
in March 2000, that focused on destructive

emotions.1
The Buddhist authors wrote the sections titled ‘‘The

Buddhist
View,’’ and the psychologist authors wrote the sections

on
research directions and theory.

ACHIEVING
ENDURING HAPPINESS

The
Buddhist View

Buddhists
and psychologists alike believe that emotions

strongly
influence people’s thoughts, words, and actions and

that,
at times, they help people in their pursuit of transient

pleasures
and satisfaction. From a Buddhist perspective, how-

Address
correspondence to Paul Ekman, P.O. Box 5211, Berkeley

CA
94705; e-mail: paul@paulekman.com.

1The
participants at this meeting, besides the Dalai Lama, were Richard

Davidson,
Paul Ekman, Owen Flannagen, Daniel Goleman, Mark Greenberg,

Thupten
Jinpa, Matthieu Ricard, Jeanne Tsai, Francisco Varela, and Alan

Wallace.
We thank the Mind and Life Institute of Boulder, Colorado for organizing

the
meeting in India and a subsequent meeting during which we wrote this

article.

CURRENT
DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Volume
14—Number 2 Copyright r 2005 American Psychological Society 59

ever,
some emotions are conducive to genuine and enduring

happiness
and others are not. A Buddhist term for such

happiness
is sukha, which may be defined in this context as a

state
of flourishing that arises from mental balance and insight

into
the nature of reality. Rather than a fleeting emotion or mood

aroused
by sensory and conceptual stimuli, sukha is an enduring

trait
that arises from a mind in a state of equilibrium and

entails
a conceptually unstructured and unfiltered awareness of

the
true nature of reality. Many Buddhist contemplatives claim

to
have experienced sukha, which increases as a result of sustained

training.

Similarly,
the Buddhist concept of duhkha, often translated as

‘‘suffering,’’
is not simply an unpleasant feeling. Rather, it refers

most
deeply to a basic vulnerability to suffering and pain due

to
misapprehending the nature of reality. (The terms sukha and

duhkha
are from Sanskrit, one of the primary languages of

Buddhist
literature.)

How
is sukha to be realized? Buddhists believe that the

radical
transformation of consciousness necessary to realize

sukha
can occur by sustained training in attention, emotional

balance,
and mindfulness, so that one can learn to distinguish

between
the way things are as they appear to the senses and the

conceptual
superimpositions one projects upon them. As a result

of
such training, one perceives what is presented to the

senses,
including one’s own mental states, in a way that is closer

to
their true nature, undistorted by the projections people habitually

mistake
for reality.

Such
training results not only in shifts in fleeting emotions but

also
leads to changes in one’s moods and eventually even

changes
in one’s temperament. For more than two millennia,

Buddhist
practitioners have developed and tested ways of

gradually
cultivating those emotions that are conductive to the

pursuit
of sukha and of freeing themselves from emotions that

are
detrimental to this pursuit. The ideal here is not simply to

achieve
one’s own individual happiness in isolation from others,

but
to incorporate the recognition of one’s deep kinship with all

beings,
who share the same yearning to be free of suffering and

to
find a lasting state of well-being.

Two
Research Directions

We
have begun to examine highly experienced Buddhist practitioners,

who
presumably have achieved sukha, to determine

whether
that trait manifests itself in their biological activity

during
emotional episodes (Lutz, Greischar, Rawlings, Ricard,

&
Davidson, in press) or increases their sensitivity to the

emotions
of other people, and to see how their interactive style

may
transform the nature of conflictual interactions. Such study

of
Buddhism’s most expert practitioners may change psychology’s

conception
of what at least some human beings are capable

of
achieving.

Another
possible area of research concerns the reliability of

self-report
about mental states. Although much of the research

on
emotion has presumed that research subjects and our

patients
during psychotherapy can readily report on their subjective

experience
through questionnaires and interviews,

findings
to date show that most people report only the most recent

or
most intense of their emotional experiences (e.g., Kahneman,

Fredrickson,
Schreiber, & Redelmeier, 1993; Rosenberg &

Ekman,
1994) and are subject to bias. Research could determine

whether
those schooled in Buddhist practices could offer a

more
refined and complete account of their immediately past

emotional
experience, exhibiting fewer judgmental biases. In a

related
vein, other research has demonstrated that most people

are
poor predictors of what will make them happy (e.g., Wilson

&
Gilbert, in press). It would be interesting to determine

whether
those who have engaged in Buddhist contemplative

practices
sufficiently to achieve sukha are more accurate in

affective
forecasting.

AFFLICTIVE
MENTAL STATES

The
Buddhist View

Buddhism
does not distinguish between emotions and other

mental
processes. Instead, it is concerned with understanding

which
types of mental activity are truly conducive to one’s own

and
others’ well-being, and which ones are harmful, especially

in
the long run.

In
Buddhism, a clear distinction is made between affective

states
that are directly aroused by the experience of pleasurable

stimuli
(sensory, as well as aesthetic and intellectual) and

sukha,
which arises from the attentional, emotional, and cognitive

balance
of the mind. (For a similar distinction, see

Sheldon,
Ryan, Deci, & Kasser, 2004.) The experience of pleasure

is
contingent upon specific times, places, and circumstances,

and
can easily change into a neutral or unpleasant

feeling.
When one disengages from the pleasant stimulus, the

resultant
pleasure vanishes, whether or not it is connected to

any
afflictive state.

The
initial challenge of Buddhist meditative practice is not

merely
to suppress, let alone repress, destructive mental states,

but
instead to identify how they arise, how they are experienced,

and
how they influence oneself and others over the long run.

In
addition, one learns to transform and finally free oneself from

all
afflictive states. This requires cultivating and refining one’s

ability
to introspectively monitor one’s own mental activities,

enabling
one to distinguish disruptive from nondisruptive

thoughts
and emotions. In Buddhism, rigorous, sustained

training
in mindfulness and introspection is conjoined with the

cultivation
of attentional stability and vividness.

In
contrast to Aristotelian ethics, Buddhism rejects the notion

that
all emotions are healthy as long as they are not excessive or

inappropriate
to the time and place. Rather, Buddhism maintains

that
some mental states are afflictive regardless of their

degree
or the context in which they arise. Here we focus on three

mental
processes that are considered to be fundamental toxins

of
the mind.

60
Volume 14—Number 2

Buddhist
and Psychological Perspectives

The
first of these is craving. This mental process is based on

an
unrealistic, reified distinction between self and others—or

between
subject and object more generally—as being absolutely

separate
and unrelated. Craving is concerned with acquiring

or
maintaining some desirable object or situation for

‘‘me’’
and ‘‘mine,’’ which may be threatened by ‘‘the other.’’ One

assumes
that desirable qualities are inherent in the object desired

and
then exaggerates these qualities, while ignoring

or
deemphasizing that object’s undesirable aspects. Craving

is
therefore an unrealistic way of engaging with the world, and

it
is harmful whenever one identifies with this afflictive mental

process,
regardless of how strong it is or the circumstances

under
which it arises. Craving is said to be afflictive, for it

disrupts
the balance of the mind, easily giving rise to anxiety,

misery,
fear, and anger; and it is unrealistic in the sense that it

falsely
displaces the source of one’s well being from one’s own

mind
to objects.

Hatred
is the second of the fundamental afflictions of the

mind
and is a reverse reflection of craving. That is, hatred, or

malevolence,
is driven by the wish to harm or destroy anything

that
obstructs the selfish pursuit of desirable objects and situations

for
me and mine. Hatred exaggerates the undesirable

qualities
of objects and deemphasizes their positive qualities.

When
the mind is obsessed with resentment, it is trapped in the

deluded
impression that the source of its dissatisfaction belongs

entirely
to the external object ( just as, in the case of craving, the

mind
locates the source of satisfaction in desirable objects). But

even
though the trigger of one’s resentment may be the external

object,
the actual source of this and all other kinds of mental

distress
is in the mind alone.

The
third, most fundamental affliction of the mind is the

delusion
of grasping onto one’s own and others’ reified personal

identities
as real and concrete. According to Buddhism, the self

is
constantly in a state of dynamic flux, arises in different ways,

and
is profoundly interdependent with other people and the

environment.
However, people habitually obscure the actual

nature
of the self by superimposing on reality the concepts of

permanence,
singularity, and autonomy. As a result of misapprehending

the
self as independent, there arises a strong sense

of
the absolute separation of self and other. Then, craving naturally

arises
for the ‘‘I’’ and for what is mine, and repulsion

arises
toward the other. The erroneous belief in the absolute

distinction
of self and other thus acts as the basis for the derivative

mental
afflictions of craving, hatred, jealousy, and arrogance.

Such
toxins of the mind are regarded, in Buddhism, as

the
sources of all mental suffering.

Theoretical
Issues and Research Directions

Psychologists
do not distinguish between beneficial and harmful

emotions.
Those who take an evolutionary view of emotion

(e.g.,
Cosmides & Tooby, 2000; Ekman, 1992) have proposed

that
emotions were adaptive over the history of the species and

remain
adaptive today. Even those who categorize emotions as

simply
positive or negative (e.g., Watson, Clark, & Tellegen,

1988)
do not propose that all of the negative emotions are

harmful
to oneself or to others. The goal in any psychologically

informed
attempt to improve one’s emotional life is not to rid

oneself
of or transcend an emotion—not even hatred—but to

regulate
experience and action once an emotion is felt (Davidson,

Jackson,
& Kalin, 2000). (Note, however, that not all

theorists
consider hatred an emotion.)

One
point of convergence between the Buddhist and psychological

perspectives
is that hostility, which is viewed in the

West
as a character or personality trait, is considered to be

destructive
to one’s health. Impulsive chronic violence is also

considered
to be dysfunctional and is classified as pathological

(Davidson,
Putnam, & Larson, 2000). But neither of these is

considered
in psychology to be an emotion per se.

Rather
than focusing on increasing consciousness of one’s

inner
state, the emphasis in much of psychology is on learning

how
to reappraise situations (Lazarus, 1991) or how to control

(regulate)
emotional behavior and expressions (Gross, 1999; but

see
Ekman, 2003, for a psychological approach to enhancing

awareness
of emotions as they occur).

The
growing literature based on self-report measures of wellbeing

indicates
that punctate events, even significant ones such

as
winning the lottery, phasically alter an individual’s state of

pleasure
but do not change an individual’s trait level of happiness.

Buddhists
agree that events such as winning the lottery

would
not alter an individual’s dispositional level of happiness,

but
they do assert that happiness as a dispositional trait (sukha)

can
be cultivated through specific practices. Although the term

trait
positive affect as it has been used in the mood and temperament

literature
has some elements in common with sukha, it

does
not capture the essence of the Buddhist construct, which

also
includes a deep sense of well-being, a propensity toward

compassion,
reduced vulnerability to outer circumstances, and

recognition
of the interconnectedness with people and other

living
beings in one’s environment. Moreover, sukha is a trait

and
not a state. It is a dispositional quality that permeates and

pervades
all experience and behavior.

Another
important difference between Buddhism and psychological

approaches
is that the Buddhists provide a method

for
modifying affective traits and for cultivating sukha (Wallace,

2005),
whereas in psychology the only methods for changing

enduring
affective traits are those that have been developed

specifically
to treat psychopathology. With a few notable exceptions

(e.g.,
Seligman, 1998), no effort has been invested in

cultivating
positive attributes of mind in individuals who do

not
have mental disorders. Western approaches to changing

enduring
emotional states or traits do not involve the long-term

persistent
effort that is involved in all complex skill learning—

for
example, in becoming a chess master or learning to play a

musical
instrument. Typically, not even psychoanalysis or the

most
intensive forms of cognitive-behavior therapy involve the

Volume
14—Number 2 61

P.
Ekman et al.

decades
of training Buddhists consider necessary for the cultivation

of
sukha.

Buddhists,
as we said, consider craving to be one of the

primary
toxins of the mind. Unlike psychologists, who restrict

the
idea of craving to states produced by substances of abuse or

by
strongly appetitive opportunities that offer the potential for

abuse
(e.g., gambling, sex), Buddhists use the term more generically

to
encompass the desire to acquire objects and situations

for
oneself. A growing body of neuroscientific literature

has
shown that activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine in a

part
of the brain called the nucleus accumbens is common to

states
of craving, including both pharmacologically induced

addictions
and activities such as gambling. Although activation

of
this system is highly reinforcing (i.e., it leads to the recurrence

of
behaviors associated with the system’s activation), it is

not
associated with pleasure in the long run. Of course, what is

not
included in this neuroscientific framework is anything akin

to
the notion of sukha.

Buddhist
contemplative practices are explicitly designed to

counteract
craving. It would thus be of great interest empirically

to
evaluate how effective these methods may be as interventions

for
addictive disorders, which are disorders of craving, and to

determine
if the brain systems associated with craving are altered

by
such training.

The
Buddhist, but not Western, view considers hatred to be

intrinsically
harmful to people who experience it. This perspective

suggests
that it would be valuable to examine the

different
ways in which those who have been exposed to a major

trauma
react emotionally to the cause of their trauma—for example,

how
people whose children have been murdered react to

the
perpetrators once they are apprehended. In a study of such

individuals,
various biological, health, and social measures

would
provide information about the consequences of maintaining

hatred
or forgiveness toward the perpetrator.

JOINT
CONCLUSION

Buddhist
conceptions and practices that deal with emotional

life
make three very distinct contributions to psychology. Conceptually,

they
raise issues that have been ignored by many

psychologists,
calling on the field to make more finely nuanced

distinctions
in thinking about emotional experience. Methodologically,

they
offer practices that could help individuals report

on
their own internal experiences, and such practices might

thereby
provide crucial data that is much more detailed and

comprehensive
than that gathered by the techniques psychologists

now
use to study subjective emotional experience. Finally,

Buddhist
practices themselves offer a therapy, not just

for
the disturbed, but for all who seek to improve the quality of

their
lives. We hope what we have reported will serve to spark

the
interest of psychologists to learn more about this tradition.

Recommended
Reading

Goleman,
D. (2003). Beyond destructive emotions: A scientific collaboration

with
the Dalai Lama. New York: Bantam Books.

Teasdale,
J.D., Segal, Z., & Williams, J.M. (1995). How does cognitive

therapy
prevent depressive relapse and why should attentional

control
(mindfulness) training help? Behavior Research and

Therapy,
33, 25–39.

Wallace,
B.A. (2005). (See References)

Acknowledgments—Paul
Ekman’s research was supported

in
part by a National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

Senior
Research Scientist Award, KO5-MH06092. Richard

Davidson’s
work described in this article has been supported

by
NIMH Grants MN43454, MH40747, P50-MH522354, and

P50-MH61083;
by NIMH Research Scientist Award KO5-

MH00875;
by grants from the Research Network on Mind-Body

Interaction
of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation;

and
by support from the University of Wisconsin. The

authors
are grateful to the many colleagues who read and gave

helpful
suggestions on earlier drafts of this article, but especially

to
Daniel Goleman.

REFERENCES

Cosmides,
L., & Tooby, J. (2000). Evolutionary psychology and the

emotions.
In M.L. Lewis & J. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of

emotions
(2nd ed., pp. 3–134). New York: Guilford Press.

Davidson,
R.J., & Irwin, W. The functional neuroanatomy of emotion

and
affective style. Trends in Cognitive Science, 3, 11–21.

Davidson,
R.J., Jackson, D.C., & Kalin, N.H. (2000). Emotion, plasticity,

context
and regulation: Perspectives from affective neuroscience.

Psychological
Bulletin, 126, 890–906.

Davidson,
R.J., Putnam, K.M., & Larson, C.L. (2000). Dysfunction in

the
neural circuitry of emotion regulation—a possible prelude to

violence.
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Ekman,
P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition and

Emotion,
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Ekman,
P. (2003). Emotions revealed: Recognizing faces and feelings

to
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Gross,
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Kahneman,
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Buddhist
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Sheldon,
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http://help.com/post/32392-buddhist-thoughts-and-scientific-th

Buddhist thoughts and
scientific theory’s

I would like
Buddhist and theorist to answer please.

“Recently we
see leader in various places with mind tricks to control their followers, while
their followers serve the leaders with ulterior motives of influence, power,
and profit. The leaders and followers trade off, above and below fooling each
other. How can education prosper and communities flourish?”

How is
Buddhism and Zen working for you?

If you’re
some what Buddhist and believe in science like me what are your theory’s you
live by?
(String theory, big bang, energy)

“The atoms that dance inside of me, will dance
elsewhere when I die”