B. Iriyāpatha Pabba
Puna
ca·paraṃ, bhikkhave, bhikkhu gacchanto vā ‘gacchāmī’ ti pajānāti, ṭhito
vā ‘ṭhitomhī’ ti pajānāti, nisinno vā ‘nisinnomhī’ ti pajānāti, sayāno
vā ‘sayānomhī’ ti pajānāti. Yathā yathā vā pan·assa kāyo paṇihito hoti,
tathā tathā naṃ pajānāti.
B. Section on postures
Furthermore,
bhikkhus, a bhikkhu, while walking, understands: ‘I am walking’, or
while standing he understands: ‘I am standing’, or while sitting he
understands: ‘I am sitting’, or while lying down he understands: ‘I am
lying down’. Or else, in whichever position his kāya is disposed, he
understands it accordingly.
Iti ajjhattaṃ vā kāye kāyānupassī
viharati, bahiddhā vā kāye kāyānupassī viharati, ajjhatta-bahiddhā vā
kāye kāyānupassī viharati; samudaya-dhamm·ānupassī vā kāyasmiṃ viharati,
vaya-dhamm·ānupassī vā kāyasmiṃ viharati, samudaya-vaya-dhamm·ānupassī
vā kāyasmiṃ viharati; ‘atthi kāyo’ ti vā pan·assa sati paccupaṭṭhitā
hoti, yāvadeva ñāṇa·mattāya paṭissati·mattāya,{1} a·nissito ca viharati,
na ca kiñci loke upādiyati. Evam·pi kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhu kāye
kāyānupassī viharati.
Thus he dwells observing kāya in kāya
internally, or he dwells observing kāya in kāya externally, or he dwells
observing kāya in kāya internally and externally; he dwells observing
the samudaya of phenomena in kāya, or he dwells observing the passing
away of phenomena in kāya, or he dwells observing the samudaya and
passing away of phenomena in kāya; or else, [realizing:] “this is kāya!”
sati is present in him, just to the extent of mere ñāṇa and mere
paṭissati, he dwells detached, and does not cling to anything in the
world. Thus, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu dwells observing kāya in kāya.
மேலும்,பிக்குக்களுக்களே,ஒரு
பிக்கு, நடந்து செல்லும் பொழுது, ‘நான் நடந்து செல்கிறேன்’,என அவர்
அறிந்துகொள்கிறார்.அல்லது நின்று கொண்டிருக்கிற பொழுது, ‘நான் நின்று
கொண்டிருக்கிகிறேன்’, என அவர் அறிந்துகொள்கிறார்:அல்லது உட்கார்ந்திருக்கிற
பொழுது, ‘நான் உட்கார்ந்திருக்கிறேன்’, என அவர் அறிந்துகொள்கிறார்: அல்லது
படுத்திருத்திருக்கிற பொழுது, ‘நான் படுத்திருத்திருக்கிறேன்’,என அவர்
அறிந்துகொள்கிறார்: தவிர அவர் kāya உடல்அமர்வுநிலை எதுவாக தீர்வு
செய்கிறாரோ அதன்படிபுரிந்து கொள்கிறார்.
இவ்வாறு அவர் kāya in kāya
உடல்/காயத்தை காயதுக்குள் கண்காணி வாசம் செய்கிரார், அல்லது காயத்தை
காயதுக்கு வெளியே கண்காணி வாசம் செய்கிரார், அல்லது காயத்தை காயதுக்கு
உள்ளே மற்றும் வெளியே கண்காணி வாசம் செய்கிரார்;புலன்களால் உணரத்தக்க
எழுச்சி கண்காணி வாசம் செய்கிரார், மற்றும் புலன்களால் உணரத்தக்கதை
கடந்துசெல்லுவதை கண்காணித்து வாசம் செய்கிரார்; இல்லாவிடில்
எச்சரிக்கையாயிருக்கிற உணர் உடனிருக்கிறதை,சும்மா வெறும் ஓர்அளவு ஞானம்
மற்றும் ஓர்அளவு paṭissati என எண்ணி பற்றறு வாசம் செய்கிரார்.
C. Sampajāna Pabba
Puna
ca·paraṃ, bhikkhave, bhikkhu abhikkante paṭikkante sampajānakārī hoti,
ālokite vilokite sampajānakārī hoti, samiñjite pasārite sampajānakārī
hoti, saṅghāṭi-patta-cīvara-dhāraṇe sampajānakārī hoti, asite pīte
khāyite sāyite sampajānakārī hoti, uccāra-passāva-kamme sampajānakārī
hoti, gate ṭhite nisinne sutte jāgarite bhāsite tuṇhībhāve sampajānakārī
hoti.
Page 1 of 2
Privacy Issues in an Electronic Voting Machine
Arthur M. Keller
UC Santa Cruz, Baskin
School of Engineering
Santa Cruz, CA 95066
+1(831)459-1485
ark@soe.ucsc.edu
David Mertz
Gnosis Software, Inc.
99 2nd Street
Turners Falls, MA 01376
+1(413)863-4552
mertz@gnosis.cx
Joseph Lorenzo Hall
UC Berkeley, SIMS
102 South Hall
Berkeley, CA 94720
+1(510)642-1464
joehall@berkeley.edu
Arnold Urken
Stevens Inst. of Technology,
Political Science
Hoboken, NJ 07030
+1(201) 216-5394
aurken@stevens.edu
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we describe the Open Voting Consortium’s voting
system and discuss the privacy issues inherent in this system. By
extension, many of the privacy issues in this paper also apply to
other electronic voting machines, such as DREs (Direct
Recording Electronic voting machines). The privacy issues
illustrate why careful and thorough design is required to ensure
voter privacy and ballot secrecy.
Categories and Subject Descriptors: K.4.1 [Computers and
Society]: Public Policy Issues — privacy.
General Terms: Design, Human Factors, Legal Aspects.
Keywords: Electronic voting, open source, privacy design.
1. INTRODUCTION
The requirements for secrecy in elections depend upon the
values and goals of the political culture where voting takes place.
Gradations of partial and complete privacy can be found in
different cultural settings. Most modern polities institutionalize
the ideal of complete privacy by relying on anonymous balloting.
The use of secret balloting in elections — where a ballot’s
contents are disconnected from the identity of the voter — can be
traced back to the earliest use of ballots themselves in 6th Century
B.C.E. Athens, Greece. The public policy rationales for instituting
anonymous balloting typically aim to minimize bribery and
intimidation of the voter [1]. Secret ballots, although not always
required, have been in use in America since colonial times.
Today, almost one hundred years after most states in the U.S.
passed laws to require anonymous balloting, a strong sense of
voter privacy has emerged as a third rationale.
These cultural values and practices contribute to the sets of
user requirements that define the expectations of voters in
computer-mediated elections and determine alternative sets of
specifications that can be considered in developing open source
software systems for elections [7]. The Open Voting Consortium
(OVC) has developed a model election system that aims as one of
its goals to meet these requirements. This paper describes how the
OVC model ensures ballot privacy.
The OVC has developed the model for an electronic voting
system largely in response to the reliability, usability, security,
trustworthiness, and accessibility concerns of other voting
systems. Privacy was kept in mind throughout the process of
designing this system. Section 2 of this paper discusses the
requirements for a secret ballot in more detail and how secrecy
could be compromised in some systems. Section 3 describes how
the OVC handles the privacy concerns. While this paper focuses
mostly on privacy issues for US-based elections, and how they are
addressed in the OVC system, many of the issues raised are
applicable elsewhere.
2. SECRET BALLOT REQUIREMENTS
The public policy goals of secret balloting — to protect the
privacy of the elector and minimize undue intimidation and
influence — are supported by federal election laws and
regulations. The Help America Vote Act of 2002 [5] codifies this
as “anonymity” and “independence” of all voters, “privacy” and
“confidentiality” of ballots and requires that the Federal Election
Commission create standards that “[preserve] the privacy of the
voter and the confidentiality of the ballot.”
The Federal Election Commission (FEC) has issued a set of
Voting System Standards (VSS) [4] that serve as a model of
functional requirements that elections systems must meet before
they can be certified for use in an election. The FEC VSS state
explicitly:
“To facilitate casting a ballot, all systems shall: […] Protect the
secrecy of the vote such that the system cannot reveal any
information about how a particular voter voted, except as
otherwise required by individual State law;” ([4] at § 2.4.3.1(b).)
This high level requirement of not exposing any information
about how an individual voted is required of all voting systems
before certification.
It is not sufficient for electronic voting systems to merely
anonymize the voting process from the perspective of the voting
machine. Each time a ballot is cast, the voting system adds an
entry to one or more software or firmware logs with a timestamp
and an indication that a ballot was cast. If the timestamp log is
combined with the contents of the ballot, this information
becomes much more sensitive. For example, it can be combined
with information about the order of votes cast collected at the
polling place with surveillance equipment — from cell phone
cameras to security cameras common at public schools — to
compromise the confidentiality of the ballot. As described below,
system information collected by the voting system should be kept
separated from the content of cast ballots and only used in
conjunction by authorized, informed elections officials.
Rebecca Mercuri proposed that Direct Recording Electronic
(DRE) voting machines have a paper audit trail maintained under
glass, so the voter does not have the opportunity to touch it or
change it. [6] Some vendors are proposing that paper from a spool
be shown to the voter, and a cutter releases the paper audit trail
piece to drop into a box for safekeeping. [2] A challenge is to
make sure that all of the paper audit trail is readable by the voter,
doesn’t curl away out of view, and yet the paper audit trails from
previous voters is obscured from view. However, the paper audit
trail can fall in a more-or-less chronologically ordered pile. The
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personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are
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copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy
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WPES’04, October 28, 2004, Washington, DC, USA.
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problem of reconciling the paper audit trail with the electronic
ballot image is difficult to do in an automated manner if the paper
audit trail cannot be sheetfed. Another approach is to keep the
paper audit trail on a continuous spool. [7] While this approach
has the potential to be more easily scanned in an automated
fashion for recounts, privacy is compromised by maintaining the
chronological order.
In the longer version of this paper, we discuss in more detail these
issues. We discuss that problem that the voter’s secret identity
must be disclosed to poll workers and yet not be discernable from
the ballot. Covert channels can be used to transfer identity of the
voter to the ballot. A critical example is when the machine that
prepares for the voter an authorizing token also contains the voter
registration data, which might be passed to the electronic voting
machine through that authorizing token.
3. SECURITY, PRIVACY, RELIABILITY
In the full version of this paper, we discuss a variety of issues and
their solutions in security, privacy, and reliability for the voting
system designed by the Open Voting Consortium and described
more fully there.
Some of these issues are the following.
The Advantage of Free and Open Source Software. When
the system is a black box, where the source code is maintained as
a trade secret, we must trust the official testers. A frequent
criticism of free and open source software is that, while the code
is available for inspection, no coordinated inspection is actually
conducted. [3] The absence of Non-Disclosure Agreements and
restrictive intellectual property agreements encourages the large
body of open source developers to inspect the code.
Randomization of Ballot-IDs. Under the OVC design
ballots carry ballot-IDs to enable auditing of official paper ballots
against unofficial electronic ballot images. Ballot IDs are easily
remembered and can be a vehicle for disclosing the vote.
Privacy Issues with Barcodes. The Open Voting
Consortium system design uses a barcode to automate the
scanning and tallying of paper ballots. Such barcodes raise several
possibilities for introducing covert channels.
Privacy in the Voting Token. The token given to the voter
to enable her to use the electronic voting machine might contain
information that could compromise anonymity. Analysis of the
software and the poll worker interface for encoding the voter
token can show the type of information that can be encoded.
Information Hidden in Electronic Ballot Images and
Their Files. The electronic ballot images (EBIs) are stored on the
electronic voting machine where the ballot was created. Storing
the EBIs in a database management system can record sequence
information that can be used to identify voters. Flat files can
include the date/time in the file directory, a potential privacy risk.
Reading Impaired Interface. It is important that the ballot
not record that the voter used the reading impaired interface. Nor
should the electronic voting machine maintain such information in
a way that identifies specific ballots. If a separate reading
impaired voting station is used, the ballot-ID should be generated
in a manner that does not identify the voting station used.
Printed Ballot. The secrecy of the voter’s selections is at
risk while the voter carries the paper ballot around the polling
place. We use a privacy folder — an ordinary manila folder
trimmed along the long edge so that the barcode sticks out.
Ballot Validation Station. The ballot validation station
allows visually impaired voters, or anyone, to hear through
headphones and therefore validate their paper ballots. Ballot-IDs
should not be persistently stored by the ballot validation station.
Languages. Steve Chessin identified a problem with ballots
for non-English speakers when printed in the voter’s own
language. This approach makes bilingual ballots easy to identify,
and that can compromise ballot anonymity if only a small number
of voters in a given precinct choose a particular language.
Public Vote Tallying. It is important that the ballots be
shuffled before publicly visible scanning occurs. The ballots will
naturally be ordered based on the time they were placed in the
ballot box. The sequence of voting is a potential privacy risk.
Results by Precinct. Care must be taken to ensure that
results posted by precinct do not compromise privacy and yet can
be reconciled against county totals.
Privacy in the Face of Voter Collusion. Complex cast
ballots, taken as a whole, contain potential covert channels.
4. CONCLUSION
We have discussed the privacy issues inherent the Open Voting
Consortium’s voting system that includes a PC-based open-source
voting machine with a voter-verifiable accessible paper ballot. By
extension, many of the privacy issues in this paper also apply to
other electronic voting machines, such as DREs (Direct
Recording Electronic voting machines). The privacy issues
illustrate why careful and thorough design is required for voter
privacy. Imagine how much work is required to ensure that such
systems are secure and reliable.
Further information about the Open Voting Consortium can be
found at http://www.openvotingconsortium.org. This paper is an
extended abstract; a longer version may be found at
http://www-db.stanford.edu/pub/keller.
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We acknowledge the work of the volunteers of the Open Voting
Consortium who contributed to the design and implementation we
describe. In particular, Alan Dechert developed much of the
design and Doug Jones provided significant insights into voting
issues. The demonstration software was largely developed by Jan
Kärrman, John-Paul Gignac, Anand Pillai, Eron Lloyd, David
Mertz, Laird Popkin, and Fred McLain. Karl Auerbach wrote an
FAQ on which the OVC system description is based. Amy Pearl
also contributed to the system description. Kurt Hyde and David
Jefferson gave valuable feedback. David Dill referred some of the
volunteers.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Albright, S. The American Ballot. American Council on Public Affairs,
Washington, D.C., 1942.
[2] Avante VOTE-TRAKKERTM EVC308-SPR,
http://www.aitechnology.com/votetrakker2/evc308spr.html.
[3] Cohen, F. Is Open Source More or Less Secure? Managing Network
Security, 2002, 7 (Jul. 2002), 17–19.
[4] Federal Election Commission. Voting System Standards. Vols. 1 & 2
(2002), http://www.fec.gov/pages/vssfinal/
[5] Help America Vote Act, 42 U.S.C.A. §§ 15301 – 15545.
[6] Mercuri, R. A Better Ballot Box? IEEE Spectrum Online, October 2,
2002, http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/WEBONLY/
publicfeature/oct02/evot.html
[7] Sequoia Voting Systems, “Sequoia Voting Systems Announces Plan to
Market Optional Voter Verifiable Paper Record Printers for Touch
Screens in 2004,” http://www.sequoiavote.com/article.php?id=54
[8] Urken, A. B. Voting in a Computer-Networked Environment. In The
Information Web: Ethical and Social Implications of Computer
Networking, Carol Gould (ed.), Westview Press, Boulder, CO, 1989.
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