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17 04 2012 TUESDAY LESSON 583 FREE ONLINE eNālāndā Research And Practice UNIERSITY And THE BUDDHIST ONLINE GOOD NEWS LETTER by ABHIDHAMMA RAKKHITA through http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org17 04 2012 TUESDAY LESSON 583 FREE ONLINE eNālāndā Research And Practice UNIERSITY And THE BUDDHIST ONLINE GOOD NEWS LETTER by ABHIDHAMMA RAKKHITA through http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org Dhammapada: Verses and Stories Dhammapada Verse 137 The Evil Results of Hurting The Pious

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17 04 2012 TUESDAY LESSON 584 FREE ONLINE eNālāndā Research And Practice UNIERSITY And THE BUDDHIST ONLINE GOOD NEWS LETTER by ABHIDHAMMA RAKKHITA through http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org

^{Dhammapada: Verses and

Stories}

^{Dhammapada

Verse 137}^{The

Evil Results of Hurting The Pious}

^{Verse

137. The Evil Results of Hurting The Pious}

^{Whoever forces the forceless

or offends the inoffensive,

speedily comes indeed

to one of these ten states:}

^{Explanation: If one attacks one who is harmless, or ill-treat

innocent beings, ten woeful states lie here and now to one of which he shall

befall.}

IV.EDITATION

MINDFULNESS

FOUR APPLICATIONS OF MINDFULNESS

LOTUS POSTURE

SAMADHI

CHAN SCHOOL

FOUR
DHYANAS

FOUR FORMLESS REALMS

MEDITATION

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/glossary.html

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.118.than.html

Anapanasati
Sutta: Mindfulness of Breathing

translated
from the Pali by

Thanissaro
Bhikkhu

I have heard that on one occasion the
Blessed One was staying at Savatthi in the Eastern
Monastery, the palace of Migara’s mother, together with
many well-known elder disciples — with Ven. Sariputta, Ven. Maha Moggallana, Ven. Maha Kassapa,
Ven. Maha Kaccana, Ven. Maha Kotthita,
Ven. Maha Kappina, Ven. Maha Cunda, Ven. Revata, Ven. Ananda, and other
well-known elder disciples. On that occasion the elder monks were teaching
& instructing. Some elder monks were teaching & instructing ten monks,
some were teaching & instructing twenty monks, some were teaching &
instructing thirty monks, some were teaching & instructing forty monks. The
new monks, being taught & instructed by the elder monks, were discerning
grand, successive distinctions.

Now on that occasion — the Uposatha day of
the fifteenth, the full-moon night of the Pavarana ceremony — the Blessed One
was seated in the open air surrounded by the community of monks. Surveying the
silent community of monks, he addressed them:

“Monks, I am content with this
practice. I am content at heart with this practice. So arouse even more intense
persistence for the attaining of the as-yet-unattained, the reaching of the
as-yet-unreached, the realization of the as-yet-unrealized. I will remain right
here at Savatthi [for another month] through the ‘White Water-lily’ Month, the
fourth month of the rains.”

The monks in the countryside heard,
“The Blessed One, they say, will remain right there at Savatthi through
the White Water-lily Month, the fourth month of the rains.” So they left
for Savatthi to see the Blessed One.

Then the elder monks taught & instructed
the new monks even more intensely. Some elder monks were teaching &
instructing ten monks, some were teaching & instructing twenty monks, some
were teaching & instructing thirty monks, some were teaching &
instructing forty monks. The new monks, being taught & instructed by the
elder monks, were discerning grand, successive distinctions.

Now on that occasion — the Uposatha day of
the fifteenth, the full-moon night of the White Water-lily Month, the fourth
month of the rains — the Blessed One was seated in the open air surrounded by
the community of monks. Surveying the silent community of monks, he addressed
them:

“Monks, this
assembly is free from idle chatter, devoid of idle chatter, and is established
on pure heartwood: such is this community of monks, such is this assembly. The
sort of assembly that is worthy of gifts, worthy of hospitality, worthy of
offerings, worthy of respect, an incomparable field of merit for the world:
such is this community of monks, such is this assembly. The sort of assembly to
which a small gift, when given, becomes great, and a great gift greater: such
is this community of monks, such is this assembly. The sort of assembly that it
is rare to see in the world: such is this community of monks, such is this
assembly — the sort of assembly that it would be worth traveling for leagues,
taking along provisions, in order to see.

“In this community of monks there are monks
who are arahants, whose mental effluents are ended, who have reached
fulfillment, done the task, laid down the burden, attained the true goal, laid
to waste the fetter of becoming, and who are released through right gnosis:
such are the monks in this community of monks.

“In this community of monks there are
monks who, with the wasting away of the five lower fetters, are due to be
reborn [in the Pure Abodes], there to be totally unbound, destined never again
to return from that world: such are the monks in this community of monks.

“In this community of monks there are
monks who, with the wasting away of [the first] three fetters, and with the
attenuation of passion, aversion, & delusion, are once-returners, who — on
returning only once more to this world — will make an ending to stress: such
are the monks in this community of monks.

“In this community of monks there are
monks who, with the wasting away of [the first] three fetters, are
stream-winners, steadfast, never again destined for states of woe, headed for
self-awakening: such are the monks in this community of monks.

“In this community of monks there are
monks who remain devoted to the development of the four frames of reference…
the four right exertions… the four bases of power… the five faculties…
the five strengths… the seven factors for awakening… the noble eightfold
path: such are the monks in this community of monks.

“In this community of monks there are
monks who remain devoted to the development of good will… compassion… appreciation…
equanimity… [the perception of the] foulness [of the body]… the perception
of inconstancy: such are the monks in this community of monks.

“In this community of monks there are
monks who remain devoted to mindfulness of in-&-out breathing.

“Mindfulness of in-&-out breathing,
when developed & pursued, is of great fruit, of great benefit. Mindfulness
of in-&-out breathing, when developed & pursued, brings the four frames
of reference to their culmination. The four frames of reference, when developed
& pursued, bring the seven factors for awakening to their culmination. The
seven factors for awakening, when developed & pursued, bring clear knowing
& release to their culmination.

Mindfulness of In-&-Out Breathing

“Now how is mindfulness of in-&-out
breathing developed & pursued so as to be of great fruit, of great benefit?

“There is the
case where a monk, having gone to the wilderness, to the shade of a tree, or to
an empty building, sits down folding his legs crosswise, holding his body
erect, and setting mindfulness to the fore.[1]
Always mindful, he breathes in; mindful he breathes out.

“[1] Breathing in long, he discerns, ‘I am breathing in long’; or
breathing out long, he discerns, ‘I am breathing out long.’ [2] Or breathing in short, he
discerns, ‘I am breathing in short’; or breathing out short, he discerns, ‘I am
breathing out short.’ [3] He
trains himself, ‘I will breathe in sensitive to the entire body.’[2]
He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out sensitive to the entire body.’ [4] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in calming bodily fabrication.’[3]
He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out calming bodily fabrication.’

“[5] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in sensitive to rapture.’
He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out sensitive to rapture.’ [6] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in sensitive to pleasure.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out sensitive to
pleasure.’ [7] He trains
himself, ‘I will breathe in sensitive to mental fabrication.’[4]
He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out sensitive to mental fabrication.’ [8] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in calming mental fabrication.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out calming
mental fabrication.’

“[9] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in sensitive to the mind.’
He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out sensitive to the mind.’ [10] He trains himself, ‘I will
breathe in satisfying the mind.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out
satisfying the mind.’ [11] He
trains himself, ‘I will breathe in steadying the mind.’ He trains himself, ‘I
will breathe out steadying the mind.’ [12]
He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in releasing the mind.’ He trains himself,
‘I will breathe out releasing the mind.’[5]

“[13] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in focusing on
inconstancy.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out focusing on inconstancy.’ [14] He trains himself, ‘I will
breathe in focusing on dispassion [literally, fading].’ He trains
himself, ‘I will breathe out focusing on dispassion.’ [15] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in focusing on cessation.’
He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out focusing on cessation.’ [16] He trains himself, ‘I will
breathe in focusing on relinquishment.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out
focusing on relinquishment.’

“This is how mindfulness of
in-&-out breathing is developed & pursued so as to be of great fruit,
of great benefit.

The Four Frames of Reference

“And how is mindfulness of in-&-out
breathing developed & pursued so as to bring the four frames of reference
to their culmination?

”[1] On whatever occasion a monk breathing in long discerns, ‘I am
breathing in long’; or breathing out long, discerns, ‘I am breathing out long’;
or breathing in short, discerns, ‘I am breathing in short’; or breathing out short,
discerns, ‘I am breathing out short’; trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in…&… out sensitive to the entire body’; trains himself, ‘I will
breathe in…&…out calming bodily fabrication’: On that occasion the monk
remains focused on the body in & of itself — ardent, alert, &
mindful — putting aside greed & distress with reference to the world. I
tell you, monks, that this — the in-&-out breath — is classed as a body
among bodies, which is why the monk on that occasion remains focused on the
body in & of itself — ardent, alert, & mindful — putting aside greed
& distress with reference to the world.

“[2] On whatever occasion a monk trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in…&…out sensitive to rapture’; trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in…&…out sensitive to pleasure’; trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in…&…out sensitive to mental fabrication’; trains himself, ‘I will
breathe in…&…out calming mental fabrication’: On that occasion the monk
remains focused on feelings in & of themselves — ardent, alert,
& mindful — putting aside greed & distress with reference to the world.
I tell you, monks, that this — careful attention to in-&-out breaths — is
classed as a feeling among feelings,[6]
which is why the monk on that occasion remains focused on feelings in & of
themselves — ardent, alert, & mindful — putting aside greed & distress
with reference to the world.

“[3] On whatever occasion a monk trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in…&…out sensitive to the mind’; trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in…&…out satisfying the mind’; trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in…&…out steadying the mind’; trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in…&…out releasing the mind’: On that occasion the monk remains focused
on the mind in & of itself — ardent, alert, & mindful — putting
aside greed & distress with reference to the world. I don’t say that there
is mindfulness of in-&-out breathing in one of lapsed mindfulness and no
alertness, which is why the monk on that occasion remains focused on the mind
in & of itself — ardent, alert, & mindful — putting aside greed &
distress with reference to the world.

“[4] On whatever occasion a monk trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in…&…out focusing on inconstancy’; trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in…&…out focusing on dispassion’; trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in…&…out focusing on cessation’; trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in…&…out focusing on relinquishment’: On that occasion the monk remains
focused on mental qualities in & of themselves — ardent, alert,
& mindful — putting aside greed & distress with reference to the world.
He who sees with discernment the abandoning of greed & distress is one who
watches carefully with equanimity, which is why the monk on that occasion
remains focused on mental qualities in & of themselves — ardent, alert,
& mindful — putting aside greed & distress with reference to the world.

“This is how mindfulness of
in-&-out breathing is developed & pursued so as to bring the four
frames of reference to their culmination.

The Seven Factors for Awakening

“And how are the four frames of
reference developed & pursued so as to bring the seven factors for
awakening to their culmination?

“[1] On whatever occasion the monk remains focused on the body
in & of itself — ardent, alert, & mindful — putting aside greed &
distress with reference to the world, on that occasion his mindfulness is
steady & without lapse. When his mindfulness is steady & without lapse,
then mindfulness as a factor for awakening becomes aroused. He develops
it, and for him it goes to the culmination of its development.

“[2] Remaining mindful in this way, he examines, analyzes, &
comes to a comprehension of that quality with discernment. When he remains
mindful in this way, examining, analyzing, & coming to a comprehension of
that quality with discernment, then analysis of qualities as a factor
for awakening becomes aroused. He develops it, and for him it goes to the
culmination of its development.

“[3] In one who examines, analyzes, & comes to a comprehension
of that quality with discernment, persistence is aroused unflaggingly. When
persistence is aroused unflaggingly in one who examines, analyzes, & comes
to a comprehension of that quality with discernment, then persistence as
a factor for awakening becomes aroused. He develops it, and for him it goes to
the culmination of its development.

“[4] In one whose persistence is aroused, a rapture
not-of-the-flesh arises. When a rapture not-of-the-flesh arises in one whose
persistence is aroused, then rapture as a factor for awakening becomes
aroused. He develops it, and for him it goes to the culmination of its
development.

“[5] For one enraptured at heart, the body grows calm and the mind
grows calm. When the body & mind of a monk enraptured at heart grow calm,
then serenity as a factor for awakening becomes aroused. He develops it,
and for him it goes to the culmination of its development.

“[6] For one who is at ease — his body calmed — the mind becomes
concentrated. When the mind of one who is at ease — his body calmed — becomes
concentrated, then concentration as a factor for awakening becomes
aroused. He develops it, and for him it goes to the culmination of its
development.

“[7] He carefully watches the mind thus concentrated with
equanimity. When he carefully watches the mind thus concentrated with
equanimity, equanimity as a factor for awakening becomes aroused. He
develops it, and for him it goes to the culmination of its development.

(Similarly with the other three frames of
reference: feelings, mind, & mental qualities.)

“This is how the four frames of
reference are developed & pursued so as to bring the seven factors for
awakening to their culmination.

Clear Knowing & Release

“And how are the seven factors for
awakening developed & pursued so as to bring clear knowing & release to
their culmination? There is the case where a monk develops mindfulness
as a factor for awakening dependent on seclusion, dependent on dispassion,
dependent on cessation, resulting in relinquishment. He develops analysis of
qualities as a factor for awakening… persistence as a factor for
awakening… rapture as a factor for awakening… serenity as a
factor for awakening… concentration as a factor for awakening… equanimity
as a factor for awakening dependent on seclusion, dependent on dispassion,
dependent on cessation, resulting in relinquishment.

“This is how the seven factors for
awakening are developed & pursued so as to bring clear knowing &
release to their culmination.”

That is what the Blessed One said.
Gratified, the monks delighted in the Blessed One’s words.

Notes

To the fore (parimukham): The Abhidhamma takes an
etymological approach to this term, defining it as around (pari-) the
mouth (mukham). In the Vinaya, however, it is used in a context
(Cv.V.27.4) where it undoubtedly means the front of the chest. There is also
the possibility that the term could be used idiomatically as “to the
front,” which is how I have translated it here.

The commentaries insist that “body” here means the
breath, but this is unlikely in this context, for the next step — without
further explanation — refers to the breath as “bodily fabrication.”
If the Buddha were using two different terms to refer to the breath in such
close proximity, he would have been careful to signal that he was redefining
his terms (as he does below, when explaining that the first four steps in
breath meditation correspond to the practice of focusing on the body in and of
itself as a frame of reference). The step of breathing in and out sensitive to
the entire body relates to the many similes in the suttas depicting jhana as a
state of whole-body awareness (see MN
119).

“In-&-out breaths are bodily; these are things tied up
with the body. That’s why in-&-out breaths are bodily fabrications.” —
MN
44.

“Perceptions & feelings are mental; these are things
tied up with the mind. That’s why perceptions & feelings are mental
fabrications.” — MN
44.

AN
9.34 shows how the mind,
step by step, is temporarily released from burdensome mental states of greater
and greater refinement as it advances through the stages of jhana.

As this shows, a meditator focusing on feelings in themselves as
a frame of reference should not abandon the breath as the basis for his/her
concentration.

See also: SN 54.8.

Dipa
Sutta: The Lamp

translated
from the Pali by

Thanissaro
Bhikkhu

“Monks, concentration through
mindfulness of in-&-out breathing, when developed & pursued, is of
great fruit, of great benefit. And how is concentration through mindfulness of
in-&-out breathing developed & pursued so as to be of great fruit, of
great benefit?

”There is the case where a monk,
having gone to the wilderness, to the shade of a tree, or to an empty building,
sits down folding his legs crosswise, holding his body erect, and setting
mindfulness to the fore.[1] Always mindful, he breathes in; mindful he breathes
out.

“[1] Breathing in long, he discerns, ‘I
am breathing in long’; or breathing out long, he discerns, ‘I am breathing out
long.’ [2] Or breathing in short, he discerns, ‘I am breathing in short’; or
breathing out short, he discerns, ‘I am breathing out short.’ [3] He trains
himself, ‘I will breathe in sensitive to the entire body.’[2] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out sensitive to the
entire body.’ [4] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in calming bodily
fabrication.’[3] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out calming the
bodily fabrication.’

“[5] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in sensitive to rapture.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out sensitive to
rapture.’ [6] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in sensitive to pleasure.’ He
trains himself, ‘I will breathe out sensitive to pleasure.’ [7] He trains
himself, ‘I will breathe in sensitive to mental fabrication.’[4] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out sensitive to
mental fabrication.’ [8] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in calming mental
fabrication.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out calming mental
fabrication.’

“[9] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in sensitive to the mind.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out sensitive to
the mind.’ [10] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in gladdening the mind.’ He
trains himself, ‘I will breathe out gladdening the mind.’ [11] He trains
himself, ‘I will breathe in steadying the mind.’ He trains himself, ‘I will
breathe out steadying the mind. [12] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in
releasing the mind.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out releasing the
mind.’[5]

“[13] He trains himself, ‘I will
breathe in focusing on inconstancy.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out
focusing on inconstancy.’ [14] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in focusing
on dispassion.’[6] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out focusing on
dispassion.’ [15] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in focusing on cessation.’
He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out focusing on cessation.’ [16] He trains
himself, ‘I will breathe in focusing on relinquishment.’ He trains himself, ‘I
will breathe out focusing on relinquishment.’

“This is how concentration through
mindfulness of in-&-out breathing is developed & pursued so as to be of
great fruit, of great benefit.

“I, too, monks, before my awakening,
when I was an unawakened bodhisatta, frequently remained with this abiding.
When I frequently remained with this abiding, neither my body was fatigued nor
were my eyes, and my mind, through lack of clinging/sustenance, was released
from fermentations.

“So if a monk should wish: ‘May neither
my body be fatigued nor my eyes, and may my mind, through lack of
clinging/sustenance, be released from fermentations,’ then he should attend
carefully to this same concentration through mindfulness of in-&-out
breathing.

“If a monk should wish: ‘May my
memories & resolves related to the household life be abandoned,’ then he
should attend carefully to this same concentration through mindfulness of
in-&-out breathing.

“If a monk should wish: ‘May I remain
percipient of loathsomeness in the presence of what is not loathsome,’ then he
should attend carefully to this same concentration through mindfulness of
in-&-out breathing.

”If a monk should wish: ‘May I
remain percipient of unloathsomeness in the presence of what is loathsome,’
then he should attend carefully to this same concentration through mindfulness
of in-&-out breathing.

”If a monk should wish: ‘May I remain
percipient of loathsomeness in the presence of what is not loathsome & what
is,’ then he should attend carefully to this same concentration through
mindfulness of in-&-out breathing.

”If a monk should wish: ‘May I
remain percipient of unloathsomeness in the presence of what is loathsome &
what is not,’ then he should attend carefully to this same concentration
through mindfulness of in-&-out breathing.

”If a monk should wish: ‘May I —
in the presence of what is loathsome & what is not — cutting myself off
from both — remain equanimous, mindful, & alert,’ then he should attend
carefully to this same concentration through mindfulness of in-&-out
breathing.

“If a monk should wish: ‘May I — quite
secluded from sensuality, secluded from unskillful qualities — enter &
remain in the first jhana: rapture & pleasure born from seclusion,
accompanied by directed thought & evaluation,’ then he should attend
carefully to this same concentration through mindfulness of in-&-out
breathing.

“If a monk should wish: ‘May I, with
the stilling of directed thoughts & evaluations, enter & remain in the
second jhana: rapture & pleasure born of concentration, unification of
awareness free from directed thought & evaluation — internal assurance,’
then he should attend carefully to this same concentration through mindfulness
of in-&-out breathing.

“If a monk should wish, ‘May I, with
the fading of rapture, remain equanimous, mindful, & alert, sense pleasure
with the body, and enter & remain in the third jhana, of which the noble
ones declare, “Equanimous & mindful, he has a pleasant abiding,”‘
then he should attend closely to this very same concentration through
mindfulness of in-&-out breathing.

“If a monk should wish, ‘May I, with
the abandoning of pleasure & pain — as with the earlier disappearance of
elation & distress — enter & remain in the fourth jhana: purity of
equanimity & mindfulness, neither-pleasure-nor-pain,’ then he should attend
closely to this very same concentration through mindfulness of in-&-out
breathing.

“If a monk should wish: ‘May I, with
the complete transcending of perceptions of (physical) form, with the
disappearance of perceptions of resistance, and not heeding perceptions of
diversity, (perceiving,) ‘Infinite space,’ enter & remain in the dimension
of the infinitude of space,’ then he should attend carefully to this same
concentration through mindfulness of in-&-out breathing.

“If a monk should wish: ‘May I, with
the complete transcending of the dimension of the infinitude of space,
(perceiving,) ‘Infinite consciousness,’ enter & remain in the dimension of
the infinitude of consciousness,’ then he should attend carefully to this same
concentration through mindfulness of in-&-out breathing.

“If a monk should wish: ‘May I, with
the complete transcending of the dimension of the infinitude of consciousness,
(perceiving,) ‘There is nothing,’ enter & remain in the dimension of
nothingness,’ then he should attend carefully to this same concentration
through mindfulness of in-&-out breathing.

“If a monk should wish: ‘May I, with
the complete transcending of the dimension of nothingness, enter & remain
in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception,’ then he should
attend carefully to this same concentration through mindfulness of in-&-out
breathing.

“If a monk should wish: ‘May I, with
the complete transcending of the dimension of neither perception nor
non-perception, enter & remain in the cessation of perception &
feeling,’ then he should attend carefully to this same concentration through
mindfulness of in-&-out breathing.

“When concentration through mindfulness
of in-&-out breathing is thus developed, thus pursued, then if he senses a
feeling of pleasure, he discerns that it is inconstant, not grasped at, not
relished. If he senses a feeling of pain, he discerns that it is inconstant,
not grasped at, not relished. If he senses a feeling of
neither-pleasure-nor-pain, he discerns that it is inconstant, not grasped at,
not relished. If he senses a feeling of pleasure, he senses it disjoined from it.
If he senses a feeling of pain, he senses it disjoined from it. If he senses a
feeling of neither-pleasure-nor-pain, he senses it disjoined from it. When
sensing a feeling limited to the body, he discerns that ‘I am sensing a feeling
limited to the body.’ When sensing a feeling limited to life, he discerns that
‘I am sensing a feeling limited to life.’ He discerns that ‘With the break-up
of the body, after the termination of life, everything that is experienced, not
being relished, will grow cold right here.’

“Just as an oil
lamp burns in dependence on oil & wick; and from the termination of the oil
& wick — and from not being provided any other sustenance — it goes out
unnourished; in the same way, when sensing a feeling limited to the body, he discerns
that ‘I am sensing a feeling limited to the body.’ When sensing a feeling
limited to life, he discerns that ‘I am sensing a feeling limited to life.’ He
discerns that ‘With the break-up of the body, after the termination of life,
everything that is sensed, not being relished, will grow cold right
here.’”

Notes

To the fore (parimukham): The Abhidhamma takes an
etymological approach to this term, defining it as around (pari-) the
mouth (mukham). In the Vinaya, however, it is used in a context
(Cv.V.27.4) where it undoubtedly means the front of the chest. There is also
the possibility that the term could be used idiomatically as “to the
front,” which is how I have translated it here.

“In-&-out breaths are bodily; these are things tied up
with the body. That’s why in-&-out breaths are bodily fabrications.” —
MN
44.

“Perceptions & feelings are mental; these are things
tied up with the mind. That’s why perceptions & feelings are mental
fabrications.” — MN
44.

AN
9.34 shows how the mind,
step by step, is temporarily released from burdensome mental states of greater
and greater refinement as it advances through the stages of jhana.

Lit., “fading.”

See also: MN 118; SN 54.6.

Arittha Sutta: To
Arittha

(On Mindfulness of
Breathing)

translated from the
Pali by

Thanissaro Bhikkhu

At Savatthi. There the Blessed One said, “Monks, do you
develop mindfulness of in-&-out breathing?”

When this was said, Ven. Arittha replied to the Blessed One, “I
develop mindfulness of in-&-out breathing, lord.”

“But how do you develop mindfulness of in-&-out
breathing, Arittha?”

“Having abandoned sensual desire for past sensual
pleasures, lord, having done away with sensual desire for future sensual
pleasures, and having thoroughly subdued perceptions of irritation with regard
to internal & external events, I breathe in mindfully and breathe out
mindfully.”[1]

“There is that mindfulness of in-&-out breathing,
Arittha. I don’t say that there isn’t. But as to how mindfulness of
in-&-out breathing is brought in detail to its culmination, listen and pay
close attention. I will speak.”

“As you say, lord,” Ven. Arittha responded to the
Blessed One.

The Blessed One said, “And how, Arittha, is mindfulness of
in-&-out breathing brought in detail to its culmination? There is the case
where a monk, having gone to the wilderness, to the shade of a tree, or to an
empty building, sits down folding his legs crosswise, holding his body erect,
and setting mindfulness to the fore.[2] Always mindful, he
breathes in; mindful he breathes out.

“[1] Breathing in long, he discerns, ‘I am breathing in
long’; or breathing out long, he discerns, ‘I am breathing out long.’ [2] Or breathing
in short, he discerns, ‘I am breathing in short’; or breathing out short, he
discerns, ‘I am breathing out short.’ [3] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in
sensitive to the entire body.’[3] He trains himself, ‘I
will breathe out sensitive to the entire body.’ [4] He trains himself, ‘I will
breathe in calming bodily fabrication.’[4] He trains himself, ‘I
will breathe out calming bodily fabrication.’

“[5] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in sensitive to
rapture.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out sensitive to rapture.’ [6] He
trains himself, ‘I will breathe in sensitive to pleasure.’ He trains himself,
‘I will breathe out sensitive to pleasure.’ [7] He trains himself, ‘I will
breathe in sensitive to mental fabrication.’[5] He trains himself, ‘I
will breathe out sensitive to mental fabrication.’ [8] He trains himself, ‘I
will breathe in calming mental fabrication.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe
out calming mental fabrication.’

“[9] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in sensitive to the
mind.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out sensitive to the mind.’ [10] He
trains himself, ‘I will breathe in satisfying the mind.’ He trains himself, ‘I
will breathe out satisfying the mind.’ [11] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe
in steadying the mind.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out steadying the
mind.’ [12] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in releasing the mind.’ He
trains himself, ‘I will breathe out releasing the mind.’[6]

“[13] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in focusing on
inconstancy.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out focusing on inconstancy.’
[14] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in focusing on dispassion.’[7]
He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out focusing on dispassion.’ [15] He trains
himself, ‘I will breathe in focusing on cessation.’ He trains himself, ‘I will
breathe out focusing on cessation.’ [16] He trains himself, ‘I will breathe in
focusing on relinquishment.’ He trains himself, ‘I will breathe out focusing on
relinquishment.’

“This, Arittha, is how mindfulness of in-&-out
breathing is brought in detail to its culmination.”

Notes

The
Commentary reads this statement as indicating that Arittha has attained the
third level of Awakening, non-return, but it is also possible to interpret the
statement on a more mundane level: Arittha is simply practicing mindfulness in
the present moment, having temporarily subdued desire for past and future
sensual pleasures, and having temporarily subdued any thought of irritation
with regard to the present.

To the
fore (parimukham): The Abhidhamma takes an etymological approach to this
term, defining it as around (pari-) the mouth (mukham). In the
Vinaya, however, it is used in a context (Cv.V.27.4) where it undoubtedly means
the front of the chest. There is also the possibility that the term could be
used idiomatically as “to the front,” which is how I have translated
it here.

The
commentaries insist that “body” here means the breath, but this is
unlikely in this context, for the next step — without further explanation —
refers to the breath as “bodily fabrication.” If the Buddha were
using two different terms to refer to the breath in such close proximity, he
would have been careful to signal that he was redefining his terms (as he does
below, when explaining that the first four steps in breath meditation
correspond to the practice of focusing on the body in and of itself as a frame
of reference). The step of breathing in and out sensitive to the entire body
relates to the many similes in the suttas depicting jhana as a state of
whole-body awareness (see MN 119).

“In-&-out
breaths are bodily; these are things tied up with the body. That’s why
in-&-out breaths are bodily fabrications.” — MN 44.

“Perceptions
& feelings are mental; these are things tied up with the mind. That’s why
perceptions & feelings are mental fabrications.” — MN 44.

AN 9.34 shows how the mind, step by step, is temporarily released
from burdensome mental states of greater and greater refinement as it advances
through the stages of jhana.

Lit.,
“fading.”

See also: MN 118; SN 54.8.

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dhamma/sacca/sacca4/samma-samadhi/jhana.html

Jhana

jhana

Jhana is a meditative state of profound
stillness and concentration in which the mind becomes fully immersed and
absorbed in the chosen object of attention. It is the cornerstone in the
development of Right Concentration.

The
definition (with similes)

[First jhana]

“There is the case where a monk — quite
withdrawn from sensuality, withdrawn from unskillful qualities — enters and
remains in the first jhana: rapture and pleasure born from withdrawal,
accompanied by directed thought and evaluation. He permeates and pervades,
suffuses and fills this very body with the rapture and pleasure born from
withdrawal. There is nothing of his entire body unpervaded by rapture and pleasure
born from withdrawal.

“Just as if a
skilled bathman or bathman’s apprentice would pour bath powder into a brass
basin and knead it together, sprinkling it again and again with water, so that
his ball of bath powder — saturated, moisture-laden, permeated within and
without — would nevertheless not drip; even so, the monk permeates, suffuses
and fills this very body with the rapture and pleasure born of withdrawal.
There is nothing of his entire body unpervaded by rapture and pleasure born
from withdrawal…

[Second jhana]

“Furthermore, with the stilling of
directed thoughts & evaluations, he enters and remains in the second jhana:
rapture and pleasure born of composure, unification of awareness free from
directed thought and evaluation — internal assurance. He permeates and
pervades, suffuses and fills this very body with the rapture and pleasure born
of composure. There is nothing of his entire body unpervaded by rapture and
pleasure born of composure.

“Just like a lake with
spring-water welling up from within, having no inflow from east, west, north,
or south, and with the skies periodically supplying abundant showers, so that
the cool fount of water welling up from within the lake would permeate and
pervade, suffuse and fill it with cool waters, there being no part of the lake
unpervaded by the cool waters; even so, the monk permeates and pervades,
suffuses and fills this very body with the rapture and pleasure born of
composure. There is nothing of his entire body unpervaded by rapture and
pleasure born of composure…

[Third jhana]

“And furthermore, with the fading of
rapture, he remains equanimous, mindful, & alert, and senses pleasure with
the body. He enters & remains in the third jhana, of which the Noble Ones
declare, ‘Equanimous & mindful, he has a pleasant abiding.’ He permeates
and pervades, suffuses and fills this very body with the pleasure divested of
rapture, so that there is nothing of his entire body unpervaded with pleasure
divested of rapture.

“Just as in a blue-,
white-, or red-lotus pond, there may be some of the blue, white, or red lotuses
which, born and growing in the water, stay immersed in the water and flourish
without standing up out of the water, so that they are permeated and pervaded,
suffused and filled with cool water from their roots to their tips, and nothing
of those blue, white, or red lotuses would be unpervaded with cool water; even
so, the monk permeates and pervades, suffuses and fills this very body with the
pleasure divested of rapture. There is nothing of his entire body unpervaded
with pleasure divested of rapture…

[Fourth jhana]

“And furthermore, with the abandoning
of pleasure and stress — as with the earlier disappearance of elation and
distress — he enters and remains in the fourth jhana: purity of equanimity and
mindfulness, neither-pleasure-nor-pain. He sits, permeating the body with a
pure, bright awareness, so that there is nothing of his entire body unpervaded
by pure, bright awareness.

“Just as if a man
were sitting wrapped from head to foot with a white cloth so that there would
be no part of his body to which the white cloth did not extend; even so, the
monk sits, permeating his body with a pure, bright awareness. There is nothing
of his entire body unpervaded by pure, bright awareness.”

— AN 5.28

Mastery of
jhana is a mark of wisdom

“I declare a person endowed with four
qualities to be one of great discernment, a great man. Which four?

“There is the case, brahman, where he practices
for the welfare & happiness of many people and has established many people
in the noble method, i.e., the rightness of what is admirable, the rightness of
what is skillful.

“He thinks any thought he wants to
think, and doesn’t think any thought he doesn’t want to think. He wills any
resolve he wants to will, and doesn’t will any resolve he doesn’t want to will.
He has attained mastery of the mind with regard to the pathways of thought.

“He attains — whenever he wants,
without strain, without difficulty — the four jhanas that are heightened mental
states, pleasant abidings in the here-&-now.

“With the ending of mental
fermentations — he remains in the fermentation-free awareness-release &
discernment-release, having directly known & realized them for himself
right in the here-&-now.

“…I declare a person endowed with
these four qualities to be one of great discernment, a great man.”

— AN 4.35

Jhana and
insight, hand-in-hand

There’s
no jhana for one with no discernment, no discernment for one with no jhana. But
one with both jhana & discernment: he’s on the verge of Unbinding.

— Dhp 372

About
meditation

The purpose of
meditation is to make our mind calm and peaceful. If our mind is peaceful, we
will be free from worries and mental discomfort, and so we will experience true
happiness; but if our mind is not peaceful, we will find it very difficult to
be happy, even if we are living in the very best conditions.

In this section

Related
websites

• About
meditation

If we train in meditation, our mind will gradually become more and more peaceful, and we
will experience a purer and purer form of happiness. Eventually, we will be
able to stay happy all the time, even in the most difficult circumstances.

Usually we find it difficult to control our mind. It
seems as if our mind is like a balloon in the wind - blown here and there by
external circumstances. If things go well, our mind is happy, but if they go
badly, it immediately becomes unhappy. For example, if we get what we want,
such as a new possession or a new partner, we become excited and cling to them
tightly.

However, since we cannot have everything we want, and
since we will inevitably be separated from the friends and possessions we
currently enjoy, this mental stickiness, or attachment, serves only to cause us
pain. On the other hand, if we do not get what we want, or if we lose something
that we like, we become despondent or irritated.

For example, if we are forced to work with a colleague
whom we dislike, we will probably become irritated and feel aggrieved, with the
result that we will be unable to work with him or her efficiently and our time
at work will become stressful and unrewarding.

Such fluctuations of mood arise because we are too
closely involved in the external situation. We are like a child making a sand castle
who is excited when it is first made, but who becomes upset when it is
destroyed by the incoming tide.

By training in meditation, we create an inner space and
clarity that enables us to control our mind regardless of the external
circumstances. Gradually we develop mental equilibrium, a balanced mind that is
happy all the time, rather than an unbalanced mind that oscillates between the
extremes of excitement and despondency.

If we train in meditation systematically, eventually we
will be able to eradicate from our mind the delusions that are the causes of
all our problems and suffering. In this way, we will come to experience a
permanent inner peace, known as “liberation” or “nirvana”.
Then, day and night in life after life, we will experience only peace and
happiness.

For more information about meditation, see Geshe Kelsang’s popular books
The New
Meditation Handbook and Transform
Your Life.

^{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation}

Meditation

A statue of the Buddha
meditating, Borim Temple, Korea

Meditation is any form of a family of practices in which practitioners train
their minds or self-induce a mode of
consciousness to realize some benefit.^[1]^[2]^[3]

Meditation is generally an inwardly oriented, personal
practice, which individuals do by themselves. Prayer beads or other ritual objects are commonly used during meditation.
Meditation may involve invoking or cultivating a feeling or internal state,
such as compassion, or attending to a specific focal point. The
term can refer to the state itself, as well as to practices or techniques
employed to cultivate the state.^[4]

There are dozens of specific styles of meditation
practice;^[3] the word meditation may
carry different meanings in different contexts. Meditation has been practiced
since antiquity as a component of numerous religious traditions and beliefs.

A 2007 study by the U.S. government found that nearly 9.4%
of U.S. adults (over 20 million) had practiced meditation within the past 12
months, up from 7.6% (more than 15 million people) in 2002.^[5]

Since the 1960s, meditation has been the focus of
increasing scientific
research of uneven rigor and quality.^[6] In over 1,000 published research studies, various methods of
meditation have been linked to changes in metabolism, blood pressure, brain
activation, and other bodily processes.^[7]^[8] Meditation has been used in clinical settings as a method of stress
and pain reduction.^[9]^[10]

Contents

[hide]

4 Religious
and spiritual meditation

5 Secular
meditation

5.1
Mindfulness

6 Modern
cross-cultural dissemination

7 Western
context

8 Meditation,
religion, and drugs

9 Physical
postures

10
Scientific studies

11 Popular
culture

12
References

13
Bibliography

13.1
Further reading

14 External
links

Etymology

Caravans on the Silk Road helped spread meditative
practices from India.

The English meditation is derived from the Latin meditatio, from a verb meditari, meaning “to think, contemplate, devise, ponder, meditate”.^[11]

In the Old Testament hāgâ (Hebrew: הגה‎), means to sigh or murmur, but also to
meditate. When the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek, hāgâ became the Greek melete.
The Latin Bible then translated hāgâ/melete into meditatio.^[12] The use of the term meditatio as part of a formal, stepwise
process of meditation goes back to the 12th-century monk Guigo II.^[13]

Apart from its historical usage, the term meditation
was introduced as a translation for Eastern spiritual practices, referred to as
dhyāna in
Buddhism and in
Hinduism, which comes from the Sanskrit root dhyai, meaning to contemplate or meditate.^[4]^[14] The term “meditation” in English may also refer to
practices from Islamic Sufism,^[15] or other traditions such as Jewish Kabbalah and Christian Hesychasm.^[16] An edited book about “meditation” published in 2003, for
example, included chapter contributions by authors describing Buddhist,
Christian, Hindu, Islamic, and Taoist traditions.^[17]^[18] Scholars have noted that “the term ‘meditation’ as it has
entered contemporary usage” is parallel to the term
“contemplation” in Christianity.^[19]

History

Man Meditating
in a Garden Setting

The history of meditation is intimately bound up with the
religious context within which it was practiced.^[20] Even in prehistoric times civilizations used repetitive, rhythmic
chants and offerings to appease the gods.^[21] Some authors have even suggested the hypothesis that the emergence of
the capacity for focused attention, an element of many methods of meditation,^[22] may have contributed to the
final phases of human biological evolution.^[23] Some of the earliest references to meditation are found in the Bible, dating around 1400
BCE,^[24]^[25] and in the Hindu Vedas from around the 15th century BCE.^[20] Around the 6th to 5th centuries BCE, other forms of meditation
developed in Taoist China and Buddhist India.^[20]

In the west, by 20BCE Philo
of Alexandria had written on some form of
“spiritual exercises” involving attention (prosoche) and
concentration^[26] and by the 3rd century Plotinus had developed meditative techniques.

The Pāli Canon, which dates to 1st century BCE considers Indian Buddhist meditation as a step towards salvation.^[27] By the time Buddhism was spreading in China, the Vimalakirti Sutra which dates to 100CE included a number of passages on meditation,
clearly pointing to Zen.^[28] The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism introduced meditation to other oriental countries, and in 653 the
first meditation hall was opened in Japan.^[29] Returning from China around 1227, Dōgen wrote the instructions for Zazen.^[30]^[31]

The Islamic practice of Dhikr had involved the repetition of the 99 Names of God since the 8th or
9th century.^[32]^[33] By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included specific
meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls and the
repetition of holy words.^[34] Interactions with Indians or the Sufis may have influenced
the Eastern
Christian meditation approach to hesychasm, but this can not be proved.^[35]^[36] Between the 10th and 14th centuries, hesychasm was developed, particularly on Mount Athos in Greece, and involves the repetition of the Jesus prayer.^[37]

Western
Christian meditation contrasts with most
other approaches in that it does not involve the repetition of any phrase or
action and requires no specific posture. Western Christian
meditation progressed from the 6th century
practice of Bible reading among Benedictine monks called Lectio Divina, i.e. divine reading. Its four formal steps as a “ladder”
were defined by the monk Guigo II in the 12th century with the Latin terms lectio, meditatio,
oratio, and contemplatio (i.e. read, ponder, pray, contemplate).
Western Christian
meditation was further developed by saints
such as Ignatius
of Loyola and Teresa of Avila in the 16th century.^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41]

By the 18th century, the study of Buddhism
in the West was a topic for intellectuals.
The philosopher Schopenhauer discussed it,^[42] and Voltaire asked for toleration towards Buddhists.^[43] The first English translation of the Tibetan Book of the Dead was published in
1927.^[44]

Secular forms of meditation were introduced in India in
the 1950s as a Westernized form of Hindu meditative techniques and arrived in
the United States and Europe in the 1960s. Rather than focusing on spiritual
growth, secular meditation emphasizes stress reduction, relaxation and self
improvement.^[45]^[46] Both spiritual and secular forms of meditation have been subjects of
scientific analyses. Research
on meditation began in 1931, with scientific
research increasing dramatically during the 1970s and 1980s.^[47] Since the beginning of the ’70s more than a thousand studies of
meditation in English-language have been reported.^[47] However, after 60 years of scientific study, the exact mechanism at
work in meditation remains unclear.^[9]

Modern
definitions and Western models

Definitions or Characterizations of Meditation:
Examples from Prominent Reviews*

Definition
/ Characterization

Review

•”[M]editation
refers to a family of self-regulation practices that focus on training
attention and awareness in order to bring mental processes under greater
voluntary control and thereby foster general mental well-being and development
and/or specific capacities such as calm, clarity, and concentration”^[48]^:228-9 Walsh & Shapiro (2006)
•”[M]editation is used to describe practices that self-regulate the
body and mind, thereby affecting mental events by engaging a specific
attentional set…. regulation of attention is the central commonality across
the many divergent methods”^[8]^:180 Cahn & Polich (2006)
•”We define meditation… as a stylized mental technique… repetitively
practiced for the purpose of attaining a subjective experience that is
frequently described as very restful, silent, and of heightened alertness,
often characterized as blissful”^[49]^:415 Jevning et al. (1992)
•”the need for the meditator to retrain his attention, whether through
concentration or mindfulness, is the single invariant ingredient in… every
meditation system”^[16]^:107 Goleman (1988) *Influential
reviews (cited >50 times in PsycINFO^[50]),
encompassing multiple methods of meditation.

Definitions and scope

Definitions or Characterizations of Meditation: Examples from Prominent Reviews*
Definition / Characterization	Review
•”[M]editation refers to a family of self-regulation practices that focus on training attention and awareness in order to bring mental processes under greater voluntary control and thereby foster general mental well-being and development and/or specific capacities such as calm, clarity, and concentration”^[48]^:228-9	Walsh & Shapiro (2006)
•”[M]editation is used to describe practices that self-regulate the body and mind, thereby affecting mental events by engaging a specific attentional set…. regulation of attention is the central commonality across the many divergent methods”^[8]^:180	Cahn & Polich (2006)
•”We define meditation… as a stylized mental technique… repetitively practiced for the purpose of attaining a subjective experience that is frequently described as very restful, silent, and of heightened alertness, often characterized as blissful”^[49]^:415	Jevning et al. (1992)
•”the need for the meditator to retrain his attention, whether through concentration or mindfulness, is the single invariant ingredient in… every meditation system”^[16]^:107	Goleman (1988)
Influential reviews (cited >50 times in PsycINFO ^[50]), encompassing multiple* methods of meditation.

As early as 1971, Naranjo noted that “The word ‘meditation’
has been used to designate a variety of practices that differ enough from one
another so that we may find trouble in defining what meditation
is.”^[51]^:6 There remains no definition of
necessary and sufficient criteria for meditation that has achieved universal or
widespread acceptance within the modern scientific community, as one study
recently noted a “persistent lack of consensus in the literature” and
a “seeming intractability of defining meditation“.^[52]^:135

In popular usage, the word “meditation” and the
phrase “meditative practice” are often used imprecisely to designate
broadly similar practices, or sets of practices, that are found across many
cultures and traditions.^[16]^[53]

Some of the difficulty in precisely defining meditation
has been the need to recognize the particularities of the many various
traditions.^[54] There may be differences between the theories of one tradition of
meditation as to what it means to practice meditation.^[55] The differences between multiple various traditions, which have grown
up a great distance apart from each other, may be even starker.^[55] The defining of what ‘meditation’ is has caused difficulties for modern
scientists. Scientific reviews have proposed that researchers attempt to more
clearly define the type of meditation being practiced in order that the results
of their studies be made clearer.^[54]^:499 Taylor noted that to refer only
to meditation from a particular faith (e.g., “Hindu” or
“Buddhist”)

is not enough,
since the cultural traditions from which a particular kind of meditation comes
are quite different and even within a single tradition differ in complex ways.
The specific name of a school of thought or a teacher or the title of a
specific text is often quite important for identifying a particular type of
meditation.^[56]^:2

The table shows several definitions of meditation that
have been used by influential modern reviews of research on meditation across
multiple traditions. Within a specific context, more precise meanings are not
uncommonly given the word “meditation.”^[57] For example, ‘meditation’, is sometimes the translation of meditatio
in Latin, which is the third of four steps of Lectio Divina, an ancient form of Christian prayer. ‘Meditation’ may also refer to
the second of the three steps of Yoga in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras, a step called dhyāna in Sanskrit. Meditation may refer to a
mental or spiritual state that may be attained by such practices,^[4] and may also refer to the
practice of that state.

This article mainly focuses on meditation in the broad
sense of a type of discipline, found in various forms in many cultures, by
which the practitioner attempts to get beyond the reflexive,
“thinking” mind^[58] (sometimes called “discursive thinking”^[59] or “logic”^[60]) into a deeper, more devout, or more relaxed state. The terms
“meditative practice” and “meditation” are mostly used here
in this broad sense. However, usage may vary somewhat by context - readers
should be aware that in quotations, or in discussions of particular traditions,
more specialized meanings of “meditation” may sometimes be used (with
meanings made clear by context whenever possible)

Western typologies

Ornstein
noted that “most techniques of meditation do not exist as solitary
practices but are only artificially separable from an entire system of practice
and belief”.^[61]^:143 This means that, for
instance, while monks engage in meditation as a part of their everyday lives,
they also engage the codified rules and live together in monasteries in
specific cultural settings, that go along with their meditative practices.
These meditative practices sometimes have similarities (often noticed by
Westerners), for instance concentration on the breath is practiced in both Zen,
Tibetan and Theravadan contexts, and these similarities or ‘typologies’ are
noted here.

Bodhidharma practicing zazen.

Progress
on the “intractable” problem of defining meditation was attempted by
a recent study of views common to 7 experts trained in diverse but empirically
highly studied (clinical or Eastern-derived) forms of meditation.^[62] The study identified
“three main criteria… as essential to any meditation practice: the use
of a defined technique, logic relaxation, and a self-induced state/mode. Other
criteria deemed important [but not essential] involve a state of psychophysical
relaxation, the use of a self-focus skill or anchor, the presence of a state of
suspension of logical thought processes, a religious/spiritual/philosophical
context, or a state of mental silence”.^[52]^:135 However, the study
cautioned that “It is plausible that meditation is best thought of as a
natural category of techniques best captured by ‘family
resemblances‘…
or by the related prototype
model of concepts“.^[52]^:135^[63]

In
modern psychological research, meditation has been defined and characterized in
a variety of ways; many of these emphasize the role of attention.^[8]^[16]^[48]^[49]

In
the West, meditation is sometimes thought of in two broad categories:
concentrative meditation and mindfulness meditation.^[64] These two categories are
discussed in the following two paragraphs, with concentrative meditation being
used interchangeably with focused attention and mindfulness meditation being
used interchangeably with open monitoring,

direction
of mental attention… A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular
object (so-called concentrative meditation), on all mental events that
enter the field of awareness (so-called mindfulness meditation), or both
specific focal points and the field of awareness.^[52]^:130^[65]

“One
style, Focused Attention (FA) meditation, entails the voluntary focusing of
attention on a chosen object. The other style, Open Monitoring (OM) meditation,
involves non-reactive monitoring of the content of experience from moment to
moment.”^[66]

Other
typologies have also been proposed,^[67]^[68]^{[additional

citations useful]}
and some techniques shift among major categories.^[69]

Evidence
from neuroimaging studies suggests that the categories of meditation, defined
by how they direct attention, appear to generate different brainwave patterns.^[67]^[68]^{[additional

citations useful]}
Evidence also suggests that using different focus objects during meditation may
generate different brainwave patterns.^[70]

Religious
and spiritual meditation

Bahá’í Faith

In the teachings of the Bahá’í
Faith meditation, along with prayer, is one of the primary tools for
spiritual development,^[71] and it mainly refers to one’s reflection on the words of God.^[72] While prayer and meditation are linked where meditation happens generally in a
prayerful attitude, prayer is seen specifically as turning toward God,^[73] and meditation is seen as a
communion with one’s self where one focuses on the divine.^[72]

The Bahá’í
teachings note that the purpose of
meditation is to strengthen one’s understanding of the words of God, and to
make one’s soul more susceptible to their potentially transformative power,^[72] and that both prayer and meditation are needed to bring about and to
maintain a spiritual communion with God.^[74]

Bahá’u'lláh, the founder of the religion, never specified any particular form of
meditation, and thus each person is free to choose their own form.^[71] However, he specifically did state that Bahá’ís should read a passage
of the Bahá’í
writings twice a day, once in the morning,
and once in the evening, and meditate on it. He also encouraged people to
reflect on one’s actions and worth at the end of each day.^[72] The Nineteen Day Fast, a nineteen-day period of the year, during which Bahá’ís adhere to a
sunrise-to-sunset fast, is also seen as meditative, where Bahá’ís must meditate and pray to
reinvigorate their spiritual forces.^[75]

Buddhism

Dynamic
tranquility: the Buddha in contemplation.

Buddhist
meditation
refers to the meditative practices associated with the philosophy of Buddhism.
Core meditation techniques have been preserved in ancient Buddhist texts and have proliferated and
diversified through teacher-student transmissions. Buddhists pursue meditation as part
of the path toward Enlightenment and Nirvana.^[76] The closest words for
meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā^[77] and jhāna/dhyāna.^[78]

Buddhist
meditation techniques have become increasingly popular in the wider world, with
many non-Buddhists taking them up for a variety of reasons. There is
considerable homogeneity across meditative practices — such as breath meditation and various recollections (anussati) —
that are used across Buddhist
schools,
as well as significant diversity. In the Theravāda tradition alone, there are
over fifty methods for developing mindfulness and forty for developing
concentration, while in the Tibetan tradition there are
thousands of visualization meditations.^[79] Most classical and
contemporary Buddhist meditation guides are school-specific.^[80]

The
Buddha is said to have identified two paramount mental qualities that arise
from wholesome meditative practice:

·
“serenity”
or “tranquillity” (Pali: samatha) which steadies, composes,
unifies and concentrates the mind;

·
“insight”
(Pali: vipassana) which enables one to see, explore and discern
“formations” (conditioned phenomena based on the five aggregates).^[81]

Through
the meditative development of serenity, one is able to suppress obscuring hindrances; and, with the suppression
of the hindrances, it is through the meditative development of insight that one
gains liberating wisdom.^[82]

Christianity

A strong
believer in Christian
meditation,
Saint Padre
Pio
stated: “Through the study of books one seeks God; by meditation one finds
him”.^[83]

Christian
Meditation is a term for form of prayer in
which a structured attempt is made to get in touch with and deliberately
reflect upon the revelations of God.^[84] The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditari which
means to concentrate. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately
focusing on specific thoughts (e.g. a biblical scene involving Jesus and the Virgin Mary) and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God.^[85]

Christian meditation contrasts with cosmic styles of
eastern meditation as radically as the portrayal of God the Father in the Bible contrasts with discussions of Krishna or Brahman in Indian teachings.^[86] Unlike eastern meditations, most styles of Christian meditations do
not rely on the repeated use of mantras, but are intended
to stimulate thought and deepen meaning. Christian meditation aims to heighten
the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian
communion.^[87]^[88]

In Aspects of Christian meditation, the Catholic
Church warned of potential incompatibilities in mixing
Christian and eastern styles of meditation.^[89] In 2003, in A Christian reflection on the New Age the Vatican announced that the “Church avoids any concept that is close to
those of the New Age”.^[90]^[91]^[92]

Christian meditation is sometimes taken to mean the middle
level in a broad three stage characterization of prayer: it then involves more
reflection than first level vocal prayer, but is more
structured than the multiple layers of contemplation in Christianity.^[93]

Hinduism

A large statue
in Bangalore depicting Lord Shiva
meditating

There are many schools and styles of meditation within
Hinduism. Yoga is generally done to prepare one for meditation, and meditation
is done to realize union of one’s self, one’s atman, with the omnipresent and non-dual Brahman. This experience is referred to as moksha by Hindus, and is
similar to the concept of Nibbana in Buddhism.^[^{citation needed}^] The earliest clear references to meditation in Hindu literature are in the middle Upanishads and the Mahabharata, which includes the Bhagavad Gita.^[94]^[95] According to Gavin Flood, the earlier Brihadaranyaka Upanishad refers to
meditation when it states that “having becoming calm and concentrated, one
perceives the self (ātman)
within oneself”.^[96]

Within Patañjali’s ashtanga yoga practice there are eight limbs leading to moksha. These are
ethical discipline (yamas), rules (niyamas), physical postures (asanas), breath control (pranayama), withdrawal from the senses (pratyahara), one-pointedness of mind (dharana), meditation (dhyana),
and finally samadhi, which is often described as the union of the Self (atman) with the omnipresent (Brahman), and is the ultimate aim of all Hindu yogis.

Meditation in Hinduism is not confined to any school or
sect and has expanded beyond Hinduism to the West.^[96] Today there is a new branch of yoga which combines Christian
practices with yogic postures known popularly as Christian Yoga.^[97]

The influential modern proponent of Hinduism who first
introduced Eastern philosophy to the West in the late 19th century, Swami Vivekananda, describes meditation as follows:

Meditation has been laid stress upon by all religions. The
meditative state of mind is declared by the Yogis to be the highest state in
which the mind exists. When the mind is studying the external object, it gets
identified with it, loses itself. To use the simile of the old Indian
philosopher: the soul of man is like a piece of crystal, but it takes the
colour of whatever is near it. Whatever the soul touches … it has to take its
colour. That is the difficulty. That constitutes the bondage.^[98]

Islam

Dhikr singing.

A
Muslim is obligated to pray
five times a day: once before sunrise, at noon, in the afternoon, after sunset,
and once at night. During prayer a Muslim focuses and meditates on God
by reciting the Qur’an and engaging in dhikr
to reaffirm and strengthen the bond between Creator and creation, with the
purpose of guiding the soul to truth.^[^{citation

needed}^] Such meditation is intended
to help maintain a feeling of spiritual peace, in the face of whatever
challenges work, social or family life may present.

The
five daily acts of peaceful prayer are to serve as a template and inspiration
for conduct during the rest of the day, transforming it, ideally, into one
single and sustained meditation: even sleep
is to be regarded as but another phase of that sustained meditation.^[99]

Meditative
quiescence is said to have a quality of healing,
and—in contemporary terminology—enhancing creativity.^[100] The Islamic prophet Muhammad spent sustained periods in
contemplation and meditation. It was during one such period that Muhammad began
to receive the revelations of the Qur’an.^[101]^[102]

Following
are the styles, or schools, of meditation in the Muslim traditions:

Tafakkur or tadabbur, literally
means reflection upon the universe: this is
considered to permit access to a form of cognitive and emotional
development that can emanate only from the higher level, i.e. from God.
The sensation of receiving divine
inspiration
awakens and liberates both heart and intellect,
permitting such inner growth that the apparently mundane actually takes on
the quality of the infinite. Muslim
teachings embrace life as a test of one’s submission to God.^[103]
Meditation
in the Sufi traditions
is largely based on a spectrum of mystical exercises,
varying from one lineage to another. Such techniques, particularly the
more audacious, can be, and often have been down the ages, a source of
controversy among scholars. One broad group of ulema, followers of the great Al-Ghazzali, for
example, have in general been open to such techniques and forms of devotion, while
another such group, those who concur with the Ibn Taymiya, reject
and generally condemn such procedures as species of bid’ah (Arabic:
بدعة) or mere innovation.

Numerous
Sufi traditions place emphasis upon a
meditative procedure similar in its cognitive aspect to one of the two
principal approaches to be found in the Buddhist
traditions:
that of the concentration technique, involving
high-intensity and sharply focused introspection. In the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi order, for example, this is particularly evident,
where muraqaba takes the form of tamarkoz, the latter being a Persian term that means concentration.

Jainism

Mahavira in meditative posture

In Jainism, meditation has been a core spiritual practice,
one that Jains believe people have undertaken since the teaching of the Tirthankara, Rishabha.^[104] All the twenty four Tirthankaras practiced deep meditation and
attained enlightenment.^[105] They are all shown in meditative postures in the images or idols. Mahavira practiced deep meditation for twelve years and attained enlightenment.^[106] The Acaranga
Sutra dating to 500 BC, addresses the meditation system
of Jainism in detail.^[107] Acharya
Bhadrabahu of the 4th century BC practiced
deep Mahaprana meditation for 12 years.^[108] Kundakunda of 1st century BCE, opened new dimensions of meditation in Jain
tradition through his books Samayasāra, Pravachansar and others.^[109]

Jain meditation and spiritual practices system were
referred to as salvation-path. It has three important parts called the Ratnatraya “Three Jewels”: right perception and faith, right knowledge
and right conduct.^[110] Meditation in Jainism aims at realizing the self, attaining
salvation, take the soul to complete freedom.^[111] It aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is
believed to be pure consciousness, beyond any attachment or aversion. The
practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer (Gyata-Drashta). Jain meditation
can be broadly categorized to Dharmya Dhyana and Shukla Dhyana.

There exists a number of meditation techniques such as pindāstha-dhyāna,
padāstha-dhyāna, rūpāstha-dhyāna, rūpātita-dhyāna, savīrya-dhyāna, etc. In padāstha
dhyāna one focuses on Mantra.^[112] A Mantra could be either a combination of core letters or words on
deity or themes. There is a rich tradition of Mantra in Jainism. All
Jain followers irrespective of their sect, whether Digambara or Svetambara, practice mantra. Mantra chanting is an important part of daily lives
of Jain monks and followers. Mantra chanting can be done either loudly or
silently in mind. Yogasana and Pranayama has been an important practice undertaken since
ages. Pranayama – breathing exercises – are performed to strengthen the ten Pranas
or vital energy.^[113] Yogasana and Pranayama balances the functioning of neuro-endocrine
system of body and helps in achieving good physical, mental and emotional
health.^[114]

Contemplation is a very old and important meditation
technique. The practitioner meditates deeply on subtle facts. In agnya
vichāya, one contemplates on seven facts - life and non-life, the inflow,
bondage, stoppage and removal of karmas, and the final accomplishment of
liberation. In apaya vichāya, one contemplates on the incorrect insights
one indulges, which eventually develops right insight. In vipaka vichāya,
one reflects on the eight causes or basic types of karma. In sansathan
vichāya, one thinks about the vastness of the universe and the loneliness
of the soul.^[112]

Acharya
Mahapragya formulated Preksha
meditation in the 1970s and presented a
well-organised system of meditation. Asana and Pranayama,
meditation, contemplation, mantra and therapy are its integral parts.^[115] Numerous Preksha meditation centers came into existence around the
world and numerous meditations camps are being organized to impart training in
it.

Judaism

There is evidence that Judaism has had meditative
practices that go back thousands of years.^[116]^[117] For instance, in the Torah, the patriarch Isaac is described as
going “לשוח” (lasuach) in the field—a term understood by all
commentators as some type of meditative practice (Genesis 24:63), probably prayer.^[118]

Similarly, there are indications throughout the Tanach (the Hebrew Bible) that meditation
was used by the prophets.^[119] In the Old
Testament, there are two Hebrew words for meditation: hāgâ (Hebrew: הגה‎), which means to sigh or murmur, but also to
meditate, and sîḥâ (Hebrew: שיחה‎), which means to muse, or rehearse in one’s mind.

The Jewish mystical tradition, Kabbalah, is inherently a meditative field of study.^[120]^[121] Traditionally Kabbalah is only taught to orthodox Jews over the age
of forty. The Talmud refers to the advantage of the scholar over the prophet, as his
understanding takes on intellectual, conceptual form, that deepens mental
grasp, and can be communicated to others. The advantage of the prophet over the
scholar is in the transcendence of their intuitive vision. The ideal
illumination is achieved when the insights of mystical revelation are brought
into conceptual structures. For example, Isaac Luria revealed new doctrines of Kabbalah in the 16th Century, that
revolutionised and reordered its teachings into a new system.^[122] However, he did not write down his teachings, which were recounted
and interpreted instead by his close circle of disciples. After a mystical
encounter, called in Kabbalistic tradition an “elevation of the soul”
into the spiritual realms, Isaac Luria said that it would take 70 years to
explain all that he had experienced. As Kabbalah evolved its teachings took on
successively greater conceptual form and philosophical system. Nonetheless, as
is implied by the name of Kabbalah, which means “to receive”, its
exponents see that for the student to understand its teachings requires a
spiritual intuitive reception that illuminates and personalises the
intellectual structures.

Corresponding to the learning of Kabbalah are its
traditional meditative practices, as for the Kabbalist, the ultimate purpose of
its study is to understand and cleave to the Divine.^[123] Classic methods include the mental visualisation of the supernal
realms the soul navigates through to achieve certain ends. One of the best
known types of meditation in early Jewish mysticism was the work of the Merkabah, from the root /R-K-B/ meaning “chariot” (of God).

In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known
meditative practices is called “hitbodedut” (התבודדות, alternatively
transliterated as “hisbodedus”), and is explained in Kabbalistic, Hasidic, and Mussar writings, especially the Hasidic method of Rabbi Nachman
of Breslav. The word derives from the Hebrew
word “boded” (בודד), meaning the state of being alone.^[124] Another Hasidic system is the Habad method of
“hisbonenus”, related to the Sephirah of “Binah”, Hebrew for understanding.^[125] This practice is the analytical reflective process of making oneself
understand a mystical concept well, that follows and internalises its study in
Hasidic writings.

New Age

New
Age meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy, mysticism, Yoga,
Hinduism and Buddhism, yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the
West, meditation found its mainstream roots through the social revolution of
the 1960s and 1970s, when many of the youth of the day rebelled against
traditional belief
systems
as a reaction against what some perceived as the failure of Christianity to
provide spiritual and ethical guidance.^[126] New Age meditation as
practised by the early hippies is regarded for its techniques of blanking out
the mind and releasing oneself from conscious thinking. This is often aided by
repetitive chanting of a mantra, or focusing on an object.^[127]

In
Zen Yoga, Aaron Hoopes talks of
meditation as being an avenue to touching the spiritual nature that exists
within each of us.

At its core, meditation is
about touching the spiritual essence that exists within us all. Experiencing
the joy of this essence has been called enlightenment, nirvana, or even
rebirth, and reflects a deep understanding within us. The spiritual essence is
not something that we create through meditation. It is already there, deep
within, behind all the barriers, patiently waiting for us to recognize it. One
does not have to be religious or even interested in religion to find value in
it. Becoming more aware of your self and realizing your spiritual nature is
something that transcends religion. Anyone who has explored meditation knows
that it is simply a path that leads to a new, more expansive way of seeing the
world around us.^[128]

Sikhism

In Sikhism, the practices of simran and Nām Japō encourage quiet meditation. This is focusing one’s attention on the
attributes of God. Sikhs believe that there are 10 ‘gates’ to the body; ‘gates’
is another word for ‘chakras’ or energy centres. The top most energy level is
called the tenth gate or Dasam Duaar. When one reaches this stage through
continuous practice meditation becomes a habit that continues whilst walking,
talking, eating, awake and even sleeping. There is a distinct taste or flavour
when a meditator reaches this lofty stage of meditation, as one experiences
absolute peace and tranquility inside and outside the body.

Followers of the Sikh religion also believe that love
comes through meditation on the lord’s name since meditation only conjures up
positive emotions in oneself which are portrayed through our actions. The first
Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak Dev Ji preached the equality of all humankind and
stressed the importance of living a householder’s life instead of wandering
around jungles meditating, the latter of which being a popular practice at the
time. The Guru preached that we can obtain liberation from life and death by
living a totally normal family life and by spreading love amongst every human being
regardless of religion.

In the Sikh religion, kirtan, otherwise known as
singing the hymns of God is seen as one of the most beneficial ways of aiding
meditation, and it too in some ways is believed to be a meditation of one kind.

Taoism

“Gathering
the Light”, Taoist meditation from The
Secret of the Golden Flower

Taoism includes a number of meditative and contemplative
traditions, said to have their principles described in the I Ching, Tao
Te Ching, Chuang Tzu and Tao Tsang among other texts. The multitude of schools relating to Qigong, Neigong, Internal
alchemy, Daoyin and Zhan
zhuang is a large, diverse array of breath-training
practices in aid of meditation with much influence on later Chinese Buddhism and with much influence on traditional Chinese medicine and the Chinese as well as some Japanese
martial arts. The Chinese martial art T’ai chi ch’uan is named after the well-known focus for Taoist and Neo-Confucian meditation, the Taijitu (T’ai Chi T’u), and is often referred to as “meditation in motion”.

“The Guanzi essay ‘Neiye’ 內業 (Inward training) is the oldest received writing on the subject of
the cultivation of vapor and meditation techniques. The essay was probably composed at the
Jixia Academy in Qi in the late fourth century B.C.”^[129]

Often Taoist Internal
martial arts, especially T’ai chi ch’uan are thought of as moving meditation. A common phrase being,
“movement in stillness” referring to energetic movement in passive
Qigong and seated Taoist meditation; with the converse being “stillness in
movement”, a state of mental calm and meditation in the tai chi form.

In a form of meditation using visualization, such as
Chinese Qigong, the practitioner concentrates on flows of energy (Qi) in the body,
starting in the abdomen and then circulating through the body, until dispersed.^[

Other

Jiddu Krishnamurti

Indian-born philosopher Jiddu
Krishnamurti used the term
“meditation” to mean something entirely different from the practice
of any system or method to control the mind, or to consciously achieve a
specific goal or state:

Man, in order to escape his conflicts, has invented many
forms of meditation. These have been based on desire, will, and the urge for
achievement, and imply conflict and a struggle to arrive. This conscious,
deliberate striving is always within the limits of a conditioned mind, and in
this there is no freedom. All effort to meditate is the denial of meditation.
Meditation is the ending of thought. It is only then that there is a different
dimension which is beyond time.^[130]

For Krishnamurti, meditation was “choiceless
awareness” in the present:

Meditation is a state of mind which looks at everything
with complete attention, totally, not just parts of it. And no one can teach
you how to be attentive. If any system teaches you how to be attentive, then
you are attentive to the system and that is not attention. Meditation is one of
the greatest arts in life - perhaps the greatest, and one cannot possibly learn
it from anybody, that is the beauty of it. It has no technique and therefore no
authority. When you learn about yourself, watch yourself, watch the way you
walk, how you eat, what you say, the gossip, the hate, the jealousy - if you
are aware of all that in yourself, without any choice, that is part of
meditation.^[131]

Prayer beads

Most of the ancient religions of the world have a
tradition of using some type of prayer beads as tools in devotional meditation.^[132]^[133]^[134] Most prayer beads and Christian rosaries consist of pearls or beads linked together by a thread.^[132]^[133] The Roman Catholic
rosary is a string of beads containing five sets with ten
small beads. Each set of ten is separated by another bead. The Hindu japa mala has 108 beads, as well as those used in Jainism and Buddhist
prayer beads.^[135] Each bead is counted once as a person recites a mantra until the person
has gone all the way around the mala, which is counted as 100, with an extra 8
there to compensate for missed beads.^[135] The Muslim mishbaha has 99 beads. Specific meditations of each religion may be different.

Secular
meditation

A collective
meditation in Sri
Lanka

As stated by the National Center for Complementary
and Alternative Medicine, a U.S. government entity within the
National Institutes of Health that advocates various forms of Alternative
Medicine, “Meditation may be
practiced for many reasons, such as to increase calmness and physical
relaxation, to improve psychological balance, to cope with illness, or to
enhance overall health and well-being.”^[136]

Herbert Benson of Harvard
Medical School conducted a series of clinical
tests on meditators from various disciplines, including the Transcendental Meditation technique and Tibetan
Buddhism. In 1975, Benson published a book
titled The Relaxation Response where he outlined his own version of
meditation for relaxation.^[137]

Biofeedback has been used by many researchers since the 1950s in an effort to
enter deeper states of mind.^[138]^[^{citation needed}^]

Mindfulness

Over the past 20 years, mindfulness-based programs have become
increasingly important to Westerners and in the Western medical and
psychological community as a means of helping people, whether they be
clinically sick or healthy.^[139] Jon
Kabat-Zinn, who founded the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program in 1979, has defined mindfulness as ‘moment to moment non-judgmental
awareness.’^[140]^:626 Several methods are used during
time set aside specifically for mindfulness meditation, such as body scan
techniques or letting thought arise and pass, and also during our daily lives,
such as being aware of the taste and texture of the food that we eat.^[141] Scientifically demonstrated benefits of mindfulness practice include
an increase in the body’s ability to heal and a shift from a tendency to use
the right prefrontal cortex to a tendency to use the left prefrontal cortex,
associated with a trend away from depression and anxiety and towards happiness,
relaxation, and emotional balance.^[142]

Jacobson’s Progressive Muscle Relaxation was developed by American physician Edmund Jacobson in the early 1920s. In this practice one tenses and then relaxes
muscle groups in a sequential pattern whilst concentrating on how they feel.
The method has been seen to help people with many conditions especially extreme
anxiety.^[143]

Modern
cross-cultural dissemination

Methods of meditation have been cross-culturally
disseminated at various times throughout history, such as Buddhism going to
East Asia, and Sufi practices going to many Islamic societies. Of special relevance to the modern
world is the dissemination of meditative practices since the late 19th century,
accompanying increased travel and communication among cultures worldwide. Most
prominent has been the transmission of numerous Asian-derived practices to the
West. In addition, interest in some Western-based meditative practices has also
been revived,^[144] and these have been
disseminated to a limited extent to Asian countries.^[145]

Ideas about Eastern meditation had begun “seeping
into American popular culture even before the American Revolution through the
various sects of European occult Christianity,”^[56]^:3 and such ideas “came pouring
in [to America] during the era of the transcendentalists, especially between the 1840s and the 1880s.”^[56]^:3 But

The World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in
1893, was the landmark event that increased Western awareness of meditation.
This was the first time that Western audiences on American soil received Asian
spiritual teachings from Asians themselves. Thereafter, Swami Vivekananda… [founded] various Vedanta ashrams… Anagarika
Dharmapala lectured at Harvard on Theravada
Buddhist meditation in 1904; Abdul Baha … [toured] the US teaching the principles of Bahai, and Soyen Shaku toured in 1907 teaching Zen…^[56]^:4

More recently, in the 1960s, another surge in Western
interest in meditative practices began. Observers have suggested many types of
explanations for this interest in Eastern meditation and revived Western
contemplation. Thomas
Keating, a founder of Contemplative
Outreach, wrote that “the rush to the
East is a symptom of what is lacking in the West. There is a deep spiritual
hunger that is not being satisfied in the West.”^[146]^:31 Daniel Goleman, a scholar of meditation, suggested that the shift in interest from
“established religions” to meditative practices “is caused by
the scarcity of the personal experience of these [meditation-derived]
transcendental states - the living spirit at the common core of all
religions.”^[16]^:xxiv

Another suggested contributing factor is the rise of
communist political power in Asia, which, “set the stage for an influx of
Asian spiritual teachers to the West,”^[56]^:7 oftentimes as refugees.^[147]

Western
context

Meditating in Madison
Square Park,
New
York City

In the late 19th century, Theosophists adopted the word “meditation” to refer to various spiritual
practices drawn from Hinduism, Buddhism and other Indian religions. Thus the English word “meditation” does not exclusively
translate to any single term or concept, and can be used to translate words
such as the Sanskrit dhāraṇā, dhyana, samadhi and bhavana.^[^{citation needed}^]

Meditation may be for a religious purpose, but even before
being brought to the West it was used in secular contexts.^[^{citation needed}^] Beginning with the Theosophists meditation has been employed in the
West by a number of religious and spiritual movements, such as Yoga, New Age and the New
Thought movement.

Meditation techniques have also been used by Western
theories of counseling and psychotherapy. Relaxation training works toward
achieving mental and muscle relaxation to reduce daily stresses. Jacobson is
credited with developing the initial progressive relaxation procedure. These
techniques are used in conjunction with other behavioral techniques. Originally
used with systematic desensitization, relaxation
techniques are now used with other clinical problems. Meditation, hypnosis and
biofeedback-induced relaxation are a few of the techniques used with relaxation
training. One of the eight essential phases of EMDR (developed by Francine Shapiro),
bringing adequate closure to the end of each session, also entails the use of
relaxation techniques, including meditation. Multimodal therapy, a technically
eclectic approach to behavioral therapy, also employs the use of meditation as
a technique used in individual therapy.^[148]

From the point of view of psychology and physiology, meditation can induce an altered state of consciousness.^[149] Such altered states of consciousness may correspond to altered
neuro-physiologic states.^[15

Meditation,
religion, and drugs

Many traditions in which meditation is practiced, such as Transcendental Meditation,^[151] Buddhism,^[152] Hinduism,^[153] and other religions, advise members not to consume intoxicants, while others, such as the Rastafarian movements and Native American
Church, view drugs as integral to their religious lifestyle.

The fourth of the five precepts of the Pancasila, the ethical code in the Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist traditions, states that adherents must not ingest, “intoxicating
drinks and drugs causing heedlessness.”

On the other hand, the ingestion of psychoactives has been
a central feature in the rituals of many religions, in order to produce altered states of consciousness. In several traditional shamanistic ceremonies, drugs are used as agents of ritual. In the Rastafari
movement, cannabis is believed to be a gift from Jah and a sacred herb to be used regularly, while
alcohol is considered to debase man. Bob Marley meditated daily on his long hammock in a corridor-like room with
wooden floor and shutters.^{[citation

needed]} Native Americans use peyote, as part of
religious ceremony, continuing today.^[154] In India, the soma drink has a long history of use alongside prayer and sacrifice, and
is mentioned in the Vedas.

During the 1960s, eastern meditation traditions and
psychedelics, such as LSD, became popular in America, and it was suggested that LSD use and
meditation were both means to the same spiritual/existential end.^[155] Many practictioners of eastern traditions rejected this idea,
including many who had tried LSD themselves. In The Master Game, Robert S de Ropp writes that the “door to full consciousness” can be
glimpsed with the aid of substances, but to “pass beyond the door”
requires yoga and meditation. Other authors, such as Rick Strassman, believe that the relationship between religious experiences reached
by way of meditation and through the use of psychedelic drugs deserves further
exploration.^[156] Also see Psychedelic psychotherapy.

Physical
postures

Various postures are taken up in meditation. Sitting,
supine, and standing postures are used. The bodily positions applied during
yoga are described at the Wikipedia page Asana.

Popular in Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism are the full-lotus, half-lotus, Burmese, and kneeling positions. Meditation is sometimes done while walking, known as kinhin, or while doing a
simple task mindfully, known as samu.

Scientific
studies

Meditation has been linked to a variety of health
benefits. In a study conducted on college students by Oman, Shapiro, Thoresen,
Plante, and Flinders (2008), they were able to demonstrate findings that
meditation may tend to changes in the neurological process cultivating
physiological health benefits. This finding was supported by an expert panel at
the National Institutes of Health. The practice of meditation has also been
linked with various favourable outcomes that include: “effective functioning,
including academic performance, concentration, perceptual sensitivity, reaction
time, memory, self control, empathy, and self esteem.”(Oman et al.,
2008, pg. 570) In their evaluation of the effects of two meditation-based
programs they were able to conclude that meditating had stress reducing effects
and cogitation, and also increased forgiveness. (Oman et al., 2008)

In a cross-sectional survey research design study lead by
Li Chuan Chu (2009), Chu demonstrated that benefits to the psychological state
of the participants in the study arose from practicing meditation. Meditation
enhances overall psychological health and preserves a positive attitude towards
stress. (Chu, 2009)

Mindfulness Meditation has now entered the health care
domain because of evidence suggesting a positive correlation between the
practice and emotional and physical health. Examples of such benefits include:
reduction in stress, anxiety, depression, headaches, pain, elevated blood
pressure, etc. Researchers at the University of Massachusetts found that those
who meditated approximately half an hour per day during an eight week period
reported that at the end of the period, they were better able to act in a state
of awareness and observation. Respondents also said they felt non-judgmental.
(Harvard’s Women’s Health Watch, 2011)

Over 1,000 publications on meditation have appeared to
date.^[^{citation needed}^] Many of the early studies lack a theoretically unified perspective,
often resulting in poor methodological quality,^[157] as discussed above in the section Definition and scope.

A review of scientific studies identified relaxation,
concentration, an altered state of awareness, a suspension of logical thought
and the maintenance of a self-observing attitude as the behavioral components
of meditation;^[69] it is accompanied by a host of biochemical and physical changes in
the body that alter metabolism, heart rate, respiration, blood
pressure and brain activation.^[7]^[8] Meditation has been used in clinical settings as a method of stress and pain reduction. Meditation has also been studied specifically for its
effects on stress.^[158]^[159] Despite the large number of scientific publications on meditation,
its measurable effect on brain activity is still not well understood.

In June, 2007 the United States National Center for Complementary
and Alternative Medicine published an independent,
peer-reviewed, meta-analysis of the state of research on meditation and health
outcomes.^[6] The report reviewed 813 studies in five broad categories of
meditation: mantra meditation, mindfulness
meditation, yoga, T’ai chi and Qigong. The result was mixed. The report concluded that “firm
conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be
drawn based on the available evidence. However, the results analyzed from
methodologically stronger research include findings sufficiently favorable to
emphasize the value of further research in this field.”^[6]^:210 More rigor in future studies was
called for.^[6]^:v

More recent research suggests that meditation may increase
attention spans. A recent randomized study published in Psychological Science reported that
practicing meditation led to doing better on a task related to sustained
attention.^[160]

Popular
culture

Various forms of meditation have
been described in popular culture sources. In particular, science fiction stories such as Frank Herbert’s Dune, Star
Trek, Artemis Fowl, Star Wars, Maskman, Lost
Horizon by James Hilton, and Stargate
SG-1 have featured characters who
practice one form of meditation or another. Meditation also appears as overt
themes in novels such as Jack Kerouac’s The
Dharma Bums and Herman Hesse’s Siddhartha.

^{http://www.learningmeditation.com/}

We
have NEW meditations available on CDs in our on-line shop. Go there now!

Welcome
to Learning Meditation. I hesitate to use the word meditation. To me, as well
as many others, the word “meditation” conjures up the picture of a
bearded man sitting cross-legged in front of an entrance to a cave or high on
a mountain top. Climbing the mountain and reaching him is part of the arduous
journey toward self-fulfillment, self-improvement. Once we find him we ask,
“What is the meaning of life?” or “How do we achieve peace in
ourselves and our lives?” This all-knowing man tells us the answers are
“inside ourselves” and tells us to go and contemplate. I don’t know
if that answer was worth the journey!

Well,
I am not a wise man on a mountain. I am just like you — involved in life and
work, seeking more serenity and calm in my life. I am still learning to do it
better, using meditation as a guide on my journey. I invite you to take this
journey yourselves. I invite you to use meditation to find the answers to your
questions.

^{http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e0rSmxsVHPE}

How to meditate

VOICE OF SARVAJAN

http://india.nydailynews.com/newsarticle/4f8b22d10169a52811000000/mayawati-attacks-samajwadi-party

Mayawati attacks Samajwadi Party

At a gathering of party
workers in Agra, Mayawati spoke critically of the Samajwadi Party, saying it
should work towards fulfilling its decisions, rather than reversing the ones
taken during her regime.

Former Uttar Pradesh chief minister and Bahujan
Samaj Party supremo Mayawati Sunday refuted allegations by the ruling Samajwadi
Party that her government wasted precious space by developing parks.

She said if the Samajwadi Party was so keen to
construct hospitals and colleges in the parks developed by her government to honour
the leaders and social reformers, then it could start with Ram Manohar Lohia
Park in Lucknow.

She was addressing a huge gathering of party
workers at Bheem Nagri as part of the three-day Ambedkar Jayanti celebrations.

Mayawati also met party MPs and legislators to
discuss strategies for the next Lok Sabha elections.

IANS

http://zeenews.india.com/news/uttar-pradesh/keep-away-from-political-vendetta-mayawati-to-sp_770253.html

Keep away from political vendetta : Mayawati to
SP

Agra (UP): BSP
chief Minister Mayawati on Monday warned the ruling Samajwadi Party in Uttar Pradesh
not to embark on political vendetta and advised it to use the vacant land of
Ram Manohar Lohia Park, constructed during the Mulayam Singh Yadav regime, for
setting up IT park or hospital.

“Chief Minister Akhilesh Yadav is talking about IT park to divert people’s
attention from the tall election promises he had made,” she told a
gathering of BSP workers at Bheem Nagri here.

Taking a swipe at SP, Mayawati said it can set up
an IT park or a hospital in Ram Manohar Lohia park.

She accused the SP government of harassing SC/ST officials and those who had
occupied high posts in her tenure.

She also alleged
her security has been drastically reduced which has adversely affected her
movement.

“If anything untoward happened to me, the Centre and the state government
should be held accountable for it,” she said.

Mayawati said during her tenure she never indulged in political revenge
and did not take action against pro-SP officials and others responsible for the
police recruitment scam.

She claimed the SP government has brought back ‘goonda raj’ in UP.

16
04 2012 monday LESSON
583 FREE ONLINE eNālāndā Research And THE
BUDDHIST
ONLINE GOOD
NEWS LETTER
by ABHIDHAMMA RAKKHITA through http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org

84000 Khandas divided into 275250 as to the
stanzas of the original text and
into 361550 divided into 2547 banawaras containing 737000 stanzas and
29368000
separate letters

Awakeness Practices

All 84,000 Khandas As Found in the
Pali Suttas

Traditionally
the are 84,000 Dharma Doors -
84,000 ways to get Awakeness. Maybe so;
certainly the Buddha taught a
large number of practices that lead to
Awakeness. This web page attempts
to catalogue those found in the Pali Suttas
(DN, MN, SN, AN, Ud & Sn 1).
There are 3 sections:

The discourses of Buddha
are divided into 84,000, as to
separate addresses. The division includes all
that was spoken by Buddha.”I
received from Buddha,” said Ananda, “82,000
Khandas, and from the
priests 2000; these are 84,000 Khandas maintained
by me.” They are divided into
275,250, as to the stanzas of the original text,
and into 361,550, as to the stanzas
of the commentary. All the discourses
including both those of Buddha and
those of the commentator, are divided
into 2,547 banawaras, containing
737,000 stanzas, and 29,368,000 separate letters.

WISDOM IS POWER

Awakened One Shows the Path to
Attain Ultimate Bliss

Anyone Can Attain Ultimate Bliss
Just Visit:

http://sarvajan.ambedkar.org

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The FREE ONLINE eNālāndā Research And Practice UNIVERSITY has been re-organized to function
through the following
Schools of Learning :

Buddha Taught his Dhamma Free of
cost, hence the Free- e-Nālandā
follows suit

As the Original Nālandā University
did not offer any Degree, so also the Free e-Nālandā
University.

Main Course Programs:

I.
KAMMA

REBIRTH

AWAKEN-NESS

BUDDHA

THUS
COME ONE

DHAMMA

II.

ARHAT

FOUR
HOLY TRUTHS

EIGHTFOLD
PATH

TWELVEFOLD
CONDITIONED ARISING

BODHISATTVA

PARAMITA

SIX
PARAMITAS

III.

SIX
SPIRITUAL POWERS

SIX PATHS OF
REBIRTH

TEN DHARMA
REALMS

FIVE
SKANDHAS

EIGHTEEN
REALMS

FIVE MORAL
PRECEPTS

IV.

MEDITATION

MINDFULNESS

FOUR
APPLICATIONS OF MINDFULNESS

LOTUS
POSTURE

SAMADHI

CHAN
SCHOOL

FOUR
DHYANAS

FOUR
FORMLESS REALMS

V.

FIVE
TYPES OF BUDDHIST STUDY AND PRACTICE

MAHAYANA
AND HINAYANA COMPARED

PURE
LAND

BUDDHA
RECITATION

EIGHT
CONSCIOUSNESSES

ONE
HUNDRED DHARMAS

EMPTINESS

VI.

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LINEAGE

with

Level I:
Introduction to Buddhism

Level
II: Buddhist Studies

TO
ATTAIN

Level
III: Stream-Enterer

Level
IV: Once - Returner

Level V:
Non-Returner

Level VI: Arhat

Jambudvipa,

i.e,
PraBuddha Bharath scientific thought in

mathematics,

astronomy,

alchemy,

and

anatomy

Philosophy
and Comparative Religions;

Historical
Studies;

International
Relations and Peace Studies;

Business
Management in relation to Public Policy and Development Studies;

Languages
and Literature;

comments (0)

Mindfulness of In-&-Out Breathing

The Four Frames of Reference

The Seven Factors for Awakening

Clear Knowing & Release

Notes

Notes

Notes

The definition (with similes)

[First jhana]

[Second jhana]

[Third jhana]

[Fourth jhana]

Mastery of jhana is a mark of wisdom

Jhana and insight, hand-in-hand

About meditation

Meditation

Etymology

History

Modern definitions and Western models

Definitions and scope

Western typologies

Religious and spiritual meditation

Bahá’í Faith

Buddhism

Christianity

Hinduism

Islam

Jainism

Judaism

New Age

Sikhism

Taoism

Other

Jiddu Krishnamurti

Prayer beads

Secular meditation

Mindfulness

Modern cross-cultural dissemination

Western context

Meditation, religion, and drugs

Physical postures

Scientific studies

Popular culture

How to meditate

Mayawati attacks Samajwadi Party

Keep away from political vendetta : Mayawati to SP

The
definition (with similes)

Mastery of
jhana is a mark of wisdom

Jhana and
insight, hand-in-hand

About
meditation

Modern
definitions and Western models

Religious
and spiritual meditation

Secular
meditation

Modern
cross-cultural dissemination

Western
context

Meditation,
religion, and drugs

Physical
postures

Scientific
studies

Popular
culture

Keep away from political vendetta : Mayawati to
SP