Daily Practice  

The Shrine Room  

It is best to start with practices which are common to all Buddhist
traditions for every-day observance. It is usual, among the more wealthy
lay Buddhists, to have a small room set aside for their daily
devotions, or at least a curtained-off recess. A few might even have a
small separate building. Even poor people, with little space in their
houses, have a special shelf high on the wall on which a Buddha-image or
picture is placed together with the usual offerings (see below).
Nowhere in the Buddhist world are Buddha-images treated as ornaments for
a living room. And a Buddha image is always given the highest “seat” in
the room, that is, the Buddha-image is displayed in the place of honor.
In the shrine-room this will be on the highest part of a shrine. If on a
special shelf (often carved and decorated with color and gold), then
that shelf is usually high on the wall and has nothing above it. The
fact that one places the symbol of one’s Teacher in the highest place
shows one’s high regard for him. For this reason alone it is obvious
that Buddha-images should not be placed on mantelpieces and
miscellaneous furniture. Also, if the shrine occupies part of the room
used for sleeping (this would be contrary to some Buddhist traditions),
it should be near the head of the bed, not at its foot. This is because
that part of the body which houses most of the organs of sense and is
the physical base of much mental activity — that is, the head — the
topmost part of a person, should be directed to what one esteems as the
highest, in this case, the symbol of the Buddha. But feet, however
useful, are easily dirtied and become ill-smelling quickly and should
never be pointed at any person who is respected and certainly not at a
shrine, whether Buddha-image or stupa.

Perhaps some may object to such matters. One may be able to hear some
people growling, “Buddhism has nothing to do with such things!” But
this attitude ignores the fact that the Dhamma is relevant to all
circumstances, also that fine conduct was praised by the Buddha, not
ignored by him. So such things do matter if one is going to have objects
of reverence such as Buddha-images. Whenever we think that such matters
are not worth troubling over then we are just careless and unmindful. A
Buddha-image should be treated respectfully and it is a good way of
training oneself to treat the Buddha-image as one would Gotama the
Buddha himself. Reverence (apacayana) is a part of the Dhamma which
should not be neglected for it helps in the overcoming of conceit.
Buddhists of all traditions have shrines with images, paintings, stupas
and so on, just because reverence is an essential part of Buddhist
training. From practices based on reverence are born humility in oneself
and harmonious relationships with others and the Buddha tells us that
four qualities increase for those who are respectful and honor those who
are senior to them: “Long life and beauty, happiness and strength” (Dhp
109). Who does not want them?

To digress a little here on the objection raised above. This might be
made by a person of rational temperament who had been able to read some
translations from the Pali canon but who had never met with Buddhist
teachers or been to Buddhist countries. From his reading such a person
might get the impression that Theravada is coolly logical, in fact a
sort of eastern humanism. But this shows the selectiveness of the mind
since all through the Suttas there are examples of reverence and
devotion. It is true that the Buddha did not encourage his followers to
give full reign to their emotions with unrestrained outbursts (in
contrast to Hindu and other teachers who have emphasized that bhakti
(devotion to a god) is all). However, He did lay down three forms of
reverence for bhikkhus; wearing the robe with the right shoulder bared,
kneeling down, and holding the palms of the hands together in the
gesture of reverence. Prostration at the feet of the Buddha is also
mentioned many times in the Suttas. Lay people are free to show their
reverence in any suitable way and people of those times were recorded in
the Suttas as expressing their reverence variously:

No doubt these expressions depended upon their confidence and
serenity (saddha-pasada). Down to the present time, Theravada tradition
in any Buddhist country is rich in the various forms of reverence
accorded to Buddha-images, stupas and to the Sangha. So a negative view
as the one mentioned is neither an advantage for practice nor in
agreement with tradition.

But other people too might have such ideas, for instance some who
have read about the iconoclastic attitude of some Zen masters, or of the
siddhas who were the last partly Buddhist teachers in India before the
extinction of Buddhism there. There are remarks and actions recorded of
some of the former teachers which might lead one to expect that whatever
else Zen is, surely reverence plays no part in it. Such people are
bound to be a little startled by the emphasis on reverence and the large
devotional element present in the daily training of anyone, monastic or
lay, who stays in a Zen training temple. The siddhas too spoke against
rituals but that was because they were faced with a great overgrowth of
Buddhist ritualistic devotion gradually accumulated through centuries of
Mahayana and Vajrayana. In matters of devotion, as in other things, one
should remember that the Buddha himself taught “Dhamma in the middle,”
with the rejection of extremes, Confidence (saddha) should be balanced
with wisdom (pañña), but one-sided practice will not lead to great
fruits.

Another sort of objection which has been raised is that the forms of
respect in Buddhist tradition are specially Asiatic and not suitable for
Buddhists in other countries. One hears of calls for a peculiarly
British or American Buddhism divested of “Asiatic trimmings.” Perhaps
the various non-Indian peoples to whom Buddhism has spread also raised
such objections when Buddhist tradition contrasted with their own
established cultures. However that may have been, the Dhamma requires
some time before it puts its roots down in any culture and before one
can even begin to imagine western forms of Buddhism, westerners who have
long trained in the Sangha, become learned and serene in their hearts
are necessary. The priority in Buddhism is on properly trained people,
not on arguments as to exterior forms.

Now, to return to the shrine room. Lay people will find it most
useful in the morning and evening, and perhaps on some days when more
time can be given to the cultivation of calm and insight. The usual
course of practice taught for lay people in Buddhist countries is that
they should practice giving (dana) according to their faith, and as far
as their circumstances allow make an effort to keep the precepts (sila)
pure, and as far as they are able so develop the mind in meditation
(bhavana). That is to say, those who are less interested in Dhamma
practice should at least make an effort to be generous. If they give
nothing, or very little when more could be given, they are making little
or no effort to go against the worldly stream of craving. Some who
cultivate generosity may not be very good at keeping some of the
Precepts but they are practicing a valuable part of Dhamma. And it is
reckoned much more practical to be open-handed and devoted to the Buddha
than it is merely to have a lot of unpracticed book-learning. Next will
come people who not only make an effort to give generously but also try
to keep the precepts. They try to conform their actions to what agrees
with the Five Precepts and perhaps on special occasions undertake Eight
Precepts as well, a subject to be discussed below. Finally, there are
those who are able to practice more than dana and sila and try to
cultivate their minds every day through meditation. Now the shrine-room
is the place where at least the last two of these Dhamma-practices may
be undertaken.

It should be a quiet place and one which is screened or curtained off
from the sight of people not interested in Dhamma. It is desirable to
have some such place apart from ordinary living rooms, devoted only to
Dhamma-practice and where the furnishings will remind one only of
Dhamma. Though these may be quite elaborate in Buddhist countries,
really nothing is needed which is difficult to obtain. Probably the most
difficult and perhaps expensive, is the Buddha-image. Failing to obtain
that, an inspiring picture of the Buddha may be used. Or if one cannot
be found then a good reproduction of some famous stupa could be one’s
focus. Whatever it is, with its beauty it should evoke harmony and
peace. If there is an image then one requires a low table to place it
on-so that the Buddha-image is just a little higher than one’s head when
kneeling down. So it will be an advantage if one can kneel down on a
soft mat on the floor and dispense with chairs. Once kneeling, it is
easy to seat oneself after offerings and recollections in meditation
posture. The table upon which the Buddha-image is placed could be
covered with a new cloth, perhaps something beautiful in color and
texture, for beauty used with restraint, is an aid to devotion. In front
of the Buddha-table another and lower one might be used for the
offerings, something like the sketch on the facing page.

The Offerings  

Apart from the Buddha-image in the place of honor, one may have other
Buddhist objects round or on the shrine, such as scroll-paintings,
Buddhist symbols such as the lotus-bud, wheel of Dhamma or the
Bodhi-leaf, or miniature stupas, and so on. But three things are
certainly needed on the shrine for making the usual offerings:
candlesticks (lamps for oil, etc., in some traditions), an incense
burner and vases or trays for flowers.

In Asian countries one may see many other things offered: food,
water, drinks, fruit, etc. The idea behind this kind of offering is
gratitude to the Teacher, and the consideration that one should not
partake of good things without first having offered something,
symbolically, to Lord Buddha. The word “offering” rather suggests that
one expects those things to be “accepted” but of course the Buddha
having attained Nibbana is beyond acceptance and rejection. The Pali
word for these things makes this matter clearer: sakkara is that which should be done properly and means firstly, honor and hospitality given to guests and so by extension, to a symbol of one’s Teacher.

Regarding the incense-burner, though various patterns are used in the
East, the cleanest method is to part fill an open-mouthed bowl with
clean sand and to place this on a saucer or other flat vessel. This
should collect most of the ash. Some Buddhist traditions do not use
vases but as in Sri Lanka arrange the flowers in patterns on trays or
platters. This method, of course, requires time, while the flowers
quickly demonstrated their impermanence.

People quite often ask why these three things in particular are
offered. The offering of flowers is a bridge to the contemplation of the
body’s impermanence. An ancient Sinhalese Pali composition may be
translated like this:

These flowers, bright and beautiful,
fragrant and good-smelling, handsome and well-formed —
soon indeed discolored, ill-smelling and ugly they become.
	
This very body, beautiful, fragrant and well-formed —
soon indeed
discolored, ill-smelling and ugly it becomes.
	
This body of mine too is of the same nature,
will become like this,
and has not escaped from this.

Candles or lights are lit to symbolize the light of Dhamma which one
should find in one’s own heart, driving out the darkness of the
defilements there. In the Dhammapada (verse 387) there is a suitable
verse for recitation while making this offering:

The sun is bright by day,
the moon lights up the night,
armored shines the warrior,
contemplative, the brahmana,
but all the day and night-time too
resplendent does the Buddha shine.

Incense having a good smell is lighted to remind one that the
Dhamma-light can only be found with the aid of good moral conduct (sila)
which has been so many times praised by the Buddha, as in these
Dhammapada verses (56, 54, 55):

Slight is this perfume
of tagara and sandalwood,
best the perfume of the virtuous
blowing even to the devas.
The perfume of flowers does not go against
	the wind,
neither that of sandalwood, jasmine, or tagara:
but the perfume of the virtuous does go
	against the wind.
The good man suffuses all directions,
Sandalwood or tagara,
lotus or the jasmine great —
of these perfumes various,
virtue’s perfume is unexcelled.

If these offerings are made with mindfulness of their meaning then they are not without good results.[1]
Also, they act as objects for focusing the mind, which in the morning
may still be sleepy, or in the evening may be distracted by the events
of the day. These offerings lead one to concentrate the mind when
reciting the Refuges and Precepts, the recollections and during
meditation. So we can see that these actions agree with that quality of
the Dhamma called “leading inward” (opanayiko). However, before we come
to these aspects of practice a few words should be said on the
traditional gestures of respect.

Gestures of Respect  

Dhamma is the way for training mind, speech and body. But the Buddha
dhamma is sometimes regarded in a way which is too intellectual and
theoretical so that there is a danger that it is not practiced as a way
of training. To help with the training of the body there are various
gestures which are expressions of one’s confidence in and reverence for
the three Treasures. These actions when performed with due mindfulness
are wholesome kamma made by way of the body. Repeated frequently they
become habitual bodily kamma and it is good to have the habit of
reverence as part of one’s character. The Buddha, soon after his
Enlightenment, thought that to live without reverence was not suitable,
so he looked around with the divine eye to find some teacher under whom
he could live, revering him and his teachings. But he found no teacher
superior to himself, nor any teaching superior to the Dhamma which he
had discovered. But out of reverence for that Dhamma he decided to make
the Dhamma his Teacher and to live revering Dhamma. We who are his
followers should follow in his footsteps and live with reverence for
those three aspects of Enlightenment: Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.

The gestures used for this are mainly two: respectful salutation with the hands (añjalikamma),[2] and the five-limb prostration (pañc’anga-vandana).[3]

The first of these, which may be remembered as “añjali” as there is
no satisfactory English equivalent, is made by bringing the palms of the
hands together, and raising them to the region of the heart or higher,
according to circumstances. For instance, in the shrine room after
kneeling down in front of the Buddha image, one makes añjali before
offering flowers, lights and incense. And as the Teacher was the highest
in the world and one to go beyond the world, so one respects him by
placing one’s hand in añjali to the forehead. But while chanting, the
hands are held in añjali at heart level. This action and others
described here, should be done with mindfulness and therefore
gracefully. And one should be careful to see that exaggerated and
impetuous movements are avoided. As we remarked before, the Dhamma does
not encourage unrestrained expressions of emotion, rather with its aid
one endeavors to calm one’s heart.

After all these preliminary remarks, we have just got into our shrine
room, knelt down, made añjali and offered the three offerings. Now
there are flowers placed in their vases or upon some offering tray,
candles or lamps burning brightly and a blue column of incense smoke
rising to the ceiling. It is time to pay one’s respects with the whole
body to the Teacher. When afterwards one says “Namo tassa…” that word
“namo” (homage) comes from the root nam meaning “to bend.” So now
one bends oneself, one’s mind and body, down and acknowledges that the
Buddha was indeed the Perfectly Enlightened One that one’s own
understanding of Dhamma is insignificant. In the kneeling position,
one’s hand in añjali are raised to the forehead and then lowered to the
floor so that the whole forearm to the elbow is on the ground, the elbow
touching the knee. The hands, palm down, are four to six inches apart
with just enough room for the forehead to be brought to the ground
between them. Feet are still as for the kneeling position and the knees
are about a foot apart. This is called the prostration with the five
limbs, that is the forehead, the forearms, and the knees. This
prostration is made three times, the first time to the Buddha, the
second to the Dhamma, and the third to the Noble Sangha.

An ancient tradition from Thailand makes this more explicit as it
adds a Pali formula to be chanted before each of the prostrations.
Before the first one may chant:

Before the second prostration:

And before the last one:

Some people feel that this prostration is “foreign” and not at all
important. They say that it may discourage people from the practice of
Dhamma if their first sight of it is so alien a custom. As there are a
few points to discuss here another digression must be made. Prostration
in this way, or similar ways which may be more complicated (as in
Chinese and Tibetan traditions) do not seem “foreign” at all when seen
in a Buddhist country. There they are just the traditional ways of
paying respect and western people, even some non-Buddhists, seldom have
any difficulties. In these days when there are so many Asian religious
and cultural movements in western countries, a practice of this sort
loses its strangeness. Certainly it is a practice which any able-bodied
Buddhist may do in the seclusion of his shrine room and not feel
embarrassed but at public meetings where non-Buddhists may be present it
is better perhaps to restrict one’s courtesies to the añjali and a
simple bow. It is well to consider whatever one’s beliefs about this
practice, that it is a long established way of showing respect in every
Buddhist tradition, both in the Sangha and among lay people. It is part
of the common inheritance of all Buddhists in Asia, while practices of
this sort may be expected to spread in time to new Buddhists in other
parts of the world with the increase in the number of Buddhist temples,
images, stupas, and above all, with the gradual establishment of the
Sangha in those countries.

The Preliminary Formula for Revering the Buddha  

Though most of one’s devotions are made in English (etc.), it may be
good to retain this short sentence (see below) in Pali. It is very
ancient and found several times in the Suttas. Here is one example of
its use:

Evidently this sentence expressive of praise and devotion was quite
widely known, as several lay people, some Buddhists and others not, some
brahmans and at least one king, uttered these inspired words. So when
today we chant these words, it is a sound that rings back through the
ages to the Buddha-time. We may chant as the brahman did:

three times in Pali while recollecting its meaning silently, or use
may be made of a method of chanting which translates this formula,
interspersing the Pali with English, like this:

(Repeat the Pali and English three times. This is according to an old
Thai method of chanting, frequently heard today in that country’s
schools.)

These three epithets of Gotama the Buddha express the three great
qualities of Enlightenment. BHAGAVATO shows the Great Compassion
(mahakaruna) of the Buddha and this we should recollect first as
loving-kindness and compassion is the necessary base for our own
practice of Dhamma. ARAHATO represents the Purity (visuddhi) of the
Buddha, a purity unforced and ever-spresent to be approached by us
through the practice of the Precepts. SAMMA-SAMBUDDHASSA stands for the
quality of Wisdom (pañña), the Unsurpassed Perfect Enlightenment
(anuttara samma-sambodhi) which distinguishes a Buddha from all other
men. Here, “Samma” means “perfect,” “sam” stands for “by himself,” and “Buddhassa” is “to the Enlightened” or “to the Awakened.”

The Three Refuges  

When people ask, “Who is really a Buddhist?” the answer will be, “One
who has accepted the Three Refuges” — Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, as his
shelter and guiding ideal.”[5]

So now that we have paid our respects to the Teacher, it is usual for
Buddhists to continue by affirming their Refuge in Enlightenment
(bodhi) in three aspects: the Buddha, the rediscoverer of Enlightenment;
the Dhamma, the way to that Enlightenment; and the Sangha, those who
are practicing that way have discovered Enlightenment for themselves.
That which has the nature of the Unsurpassed Perfect Enlightenment,
unconfused and brilliant with the qualities of Great Compassion, Purity
and Wisdom, that is a secure refuge. So we recite this sure refuge as a
reminder every day:[6]

There is a reason for repeating each refuge three times. The mind is
often distracted and if words are spoken or chanted at that time then it
is as though they have not been spoken at all. There is no strong
intention behind them and one’s Going for Refuge will be like that of a
parrot. Repeating words three times is common in many Buddhist
ceremonies (such as ordination) and ensures that the mind is
concentrated during at least one repetition.

When one has gone for refuge and so affirmed that one is following
the way taught by the Buddha, then it is time to remind oneself of the
basic moral precepts for daily conduct.

The Five Precepts  

These are the words of the Buddha from the Dhammapada:

Whoever destroys living beings,
speaks false words, who in the world
takes that which is not given to him,
or goes too with another’s wife,
or takes distilled, fermented drinks —
whatever man indulges thus
extirpates the roots of himself
even here in this very world.

So these actions are to be avoided if one wishes to be not only human
in body but also to have a human mind. And birth as a human being
depends to a great extent upon the practice of the Five Precepts which
are also called “the Dhamma for human beings” (manussa-dhamma). The
practice of these precepts makes this human world bearable, but when
such practice declines then it becomes a place of suffering and
distress.[7]

Therefore, it is a practice among Buddhists to bring to mind every
day the Five Precepts while sitting with hands in añjali in front of the
shrine. At that time one should resolve as strongly as possible to
practice them and not to depart from them. They may be recited in
translation as follows:[8]

I undertake the rule of training to refrain
	from killing living creatures.
	
I undertake the rule of training to refrain
	from taking what is not given.
	
I undertake the rule of training to refrain
	from wrong conduct in sexual pleasures.
	
I undertake the rule of training to refrain
	from false speech.
	
I undertake the rule of training to refrain
	from distilled and fermented intoxicants, which are the occasion for carelessness.

These precepts are the basic and minimal observance of moral conduct
by a Buddhist. They are designed to restrain him from making bad kamma
in speech and body and to serve as the basis for further growth in the
Dhamma. If a Buddhist wishes to meditate, for instance, he must be
trying to practice the Five Precepts. Meditation trains the mind away
from unwholesome states but how could this be done if body and speech
were uncontrolled? In connection with precepts and meditation, it may be
said again that all kinds of drugs should be given up before trying
meditation. They confuse the mind, or merely alter it temporarily — and
so fall under the fifth precept — while meditation is the step by step
purification of it.

Now that the Going-for-Refuge and the Five precepts have been
recited, it is time to recollect the virtues of the three things most
precious to a Buddhist in the world.

Recollections:  

Recollection of the Three Treasures  

The Treasures (ratana) of the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha are not
excelled by any other sort of treasure, for these treasures have the
nature of Enlightenment and are beyond the realm of arising and passing
away. So that we appreciate well the value of these Three Treasures,
this translation of the passages recollecting their virtues should be
recited every day.[9]

The advantage in making these recollections, even in a brief form
chanted once or twice a day, is a gradually increasing appreciation of
the Three Treasures. It is like a precious balm contained in an unglazed
vessel — gradually the whole of the vessel is pervaded by the sweetness
of its contents.

Affirmation of Refuge in the Three Treasures  

Before going on to chant other recollections these three traditional
verses from Sri Lanka can be chanted to make one’s mind firm in the
Refuges. It is easy for the distracted and weak mind to take refuge in
the impermanent and unstable things of this world while neglecting the
true Refuge which is like an incomparably brilliant diamond of
adamantine quality in one’s own practice of Dhamma. To put aside other
refuges, dogmatic and materialistic, one recites:[10]

For me there is no other refuge,
the Buddha truly is my Refuge —
by speaking of this truth
may I grow in the Master’s Way.
	
For me there is no other refuge,
the Dhamma truly is my Refuge —
by speaking of this truth
may I grow in the Master’s Way.
	
For me there is no other refuge.
the Sangha truly is my Refuge —
by the speaking of this truth
may I grow in the Master’s Way.

The mind which is established in the three Refuges does not suffer
from doubt and wavering; there are no thoughts as, “Was the Buddha
really enlightened?” and so on. When the mind has firm confidence in the
Three Treasures then it is not disturbed by skepticism (vicikiccha), a
hindrance to the experience of deep meditation.

The Five Subjects for Daily Recollection (”by woman or man, householder or monk”)  

There are other recollections which one can make and which help one
to appreciate the state of a human being. People tend to hide away from
decay, disease and death while greatly attached to sentient beings and
insentient objects. Some people try also to ignore moral responsibility
for their actions. The recollections below bring all these subjects out
into the light and make us face them squarely. Therefore, the Buddha has
said that they should be recollected by everyone daily.[11]

1. I am of the nature to decay.
I have not got beyond decay.
	
2. I am of the nature to be diseased.
I have not got beyond disease.
	
3. I am of the nature to die.
I have not got beyond death.
	
4. All that is mine, beloved and pleasing, will change and vanish.
	
5. I am the owner of my kamma,
heir to my kamma,
born of my kamma,
related to my kamma,
abide supported by my kamma.
Whatever kamma I shall do, whether good or evil, of that I shall be the heir.

This recollection is specially good for arousing mentally vigorous
states and for getting rid of laziness and drowsiness. Repeated every
day, these recollections make one value this life so that one makes the
best use of it.

The Development of Loving-Kindness  

Another practice which is beneficial, as it counteracts states of
mind rooted in aversion (dosa) is metta-bhavana, widely practiced by
people in Buddhist countries. The advantages are many, ranging from an
increase in personal happiness, through such social benefits as having
many good friends, to ease of meditation practice, dying unconfused and
at least gaining a good rebirth. So as part of one’s daily practice one
should recite this traditional passage used in all the Buddhist
countries of Southeast Asia.[12]

May I have no enmity
may I have no hurtfulness
may I have no troubles of mind and body
may I be able to protect my own happiness
Whatever beings there are —
	may they have no enmity
whatever beings there are —
	may they have no hurtfulness
whatever beings there are —
	may they have no troubles of mind and body
whatever beings there are —
	may they be able to protect their own happiness.

While chanting both these recollections one should not be too
hurried. Take time over them and pause for reflection after each phrase
has been chanted. In this way one prepares the mind for the next part of
one’s practice.

Meditation  

When the last reflection has been finished, one should change from
kneeling seated on the heels to a cross-legged posture, whichever one is
most suitable. Those who find it difficult to get their knees anywhere
near the floor may find it useful to sit in the way illustrated, with a
small hard cushion (or folded blanket) 3-6 inches thick under the
buttocks. One should also sit on a reasonably soft surface, and a square
of folded rug, soft carpet, etc., underneath one will make for the
greater comfort of the knees.

When seated ready to meditate, one’s body should be upright, and yet
relaxed. Carefully notice any physical strain and try to correct it.
Also one must ensure that the body is balanced and comfortable before
meditating — this can be done by moving the body around while seated —
for once started the body should not be moved. Clothes should be not
moved. Clothes should be loose and not constricting in any way.

Of all the sitting positions, the lotus posture is the best and
firmest. But not so many people are able to get their legs into this
position without a good deal of practice; so the half-lotus posture may
be tried as it also makes the body firm. Other people find the lion
posture better, or where none of these can be done, just sit in the
ordinary cross-legged way — but the back must be straight.[13]
If it is found difficult to keep the back straight (and drowsiness and
sleep are the results of sitting hunched up), then put a cushion in the
small-of the back and sit against a wall. This will help to straighten
the back while it gives support to anyone who has a weak back. When all
of these ways of sitting are impossible a chair may be used, although it
is difficult to feel really firm on a chair.

When the legs are stiff, it will be useful to try loosening the three
joints of ankle, knee and thigh with these exercises: While standing,
raise one leg keeping it straight, a foot off the floor. Support the
body by grasping hold of something firm with the hand on the other side
of the body. Revolve the foot from the ankle in the widest possible
circle while keeping the rest of the leg still. Turn the foot a number
of times both clockwise and anticlockwise. Then raise the top part of
the leg until it is parallel with the ground and swing the lower leg in
as wide a circle as possible from the knee. Do not move the upper leg.
Reverse direction of swing and repeat several times. Then straighten the
leg and swing it, keeping it straight, from the thigh in the largest
possible circle, in both directions. Repeat these three exercises from
the other leg. The whole procedure may be done two or three times a day
but do not overdo it to begin with — the result will be a lot of aching
joints! After a month or two, the joints will have become more flexible
and the leg muscles more relaxed. It should then be quite easy to adopt
one of these cross-legged postures for a long period of time. So much
for the body.

Having quietened the body and resolved not to move it while
meditating, what about the mind? Most people find that it moves much too
fast for their mindfulness to catch. Usually, what is called “mind”
means the present time consisting of:

 Eye-            Ear-       Nose-     Tongue-      Body (touch)-
consciousness   consc.      consc.     consc.        consc.
 |                |           |           |             |
 ——————————————————–
                              |
 Past(memory) — Mind-consciousness-element — (hopes,fears) Future
                              |
                         Mind-element
                              |
         Dhamma (mental-emotional experiences)-element
                              |
                              |
  ____________________________________________
 |                       |                    |
 Wholesome mental states | Neutral mental states
                         |
               Unwholesome mental states

So a “mind” may be concerned with any one of the five sense
consciousness, or it may be mind-consciousness-element having as object
something from the past, present or the future, or again it can be the
dhamma-element consisting of the three species of mental states. It will
not be mind-element, which is the passive state of mind operating in
deep sleep. Now a mind, or rather a mind operating in deep sleep. Now a
mind, or rather a succession of “minds,” which is concerned with such
highly differentiated data cannot become very concentrated. Even when
“minds” are not concerned with outer sensual stimulation and only with
inward reflection, they will still be discursive with words, concepts,
pictures and feelings, etc. In the state of meditation we try to cut out
even these inward disturbances by fixing the mind upon one subject
which is not discursive. This will conduce to our “minds” being only
wholesome states (kusaladhamma) which tend towards concentration and
peacefulness. The mental stream of “minds” concerned with many
unwholesome states (akusaladhamma — often fed by sense-stimulation),
defiled by being rooted in greed, aversion and delusion (lobha, dosa,
moha), are unconcentrated. Defilements lead to mental troubles, among
them distraction, dullness, boredom, drowsiness, lust, attachment and
aversion. But the absence of defilements means the growth of strong
wholesome states and hence of increases in clarity and concentration.

So when one has sat down already and made one’s body comfortable,
then reflect a little: This is not the time to think about the past or
the future. Even thoughts about the present must be put down now. This
is the time to quieten and concentrate the mind. To follow the Way of
Lord Buddha to make the mind firm and unshakable. Now I shall only
observe my meditation subject… Breathe in… out… in…

Two subjects in particular are suitable for a Buddhist who has no
direct contact with a meditation teacher. One is mindfulness of
breathing, the other the development of loving-kindness. There are many
other subjects but these two are the most widely used and can usually be
employed (given due care) without a meditation teacher’s guidance.
Here, each one will be treated briefly, as there are other books in
which they are dealt with in greater detail.

Mindfulness of breathing[14]
was, by tradition, the subject used by Gotama in his efforts to attain
Enlightenment. It is most suitable for promoting calm and concentrated
states and so for quelling the distracted mind. It is taught in a number
of different ways but in all of them the meditator must first find one
point in the breathing process where the breath can be watched.
Concentration upon the breath entering and leaving the nostrils, or upon
the upper lip, is good for encouraging clear and concentrated mental
states, except for people who experience some tension in the head, or
for those who find this subject too subtle. For both types of persons,
or for people when affected in these ways, to concentrate upon the
rising and falling of the diaphragm is beneficial. When one has sat down
and begun meditation it is advisable not to change one’s subject
(except in case of fear or some other strong defilement, see below) but
from time to time as the quality of meditation practice changes, for
better or worse according to circumstances, the point of concentration
or even the subject may be changed as it becomes necessary.

One should view the meditation subject as a medicine to cure the
diseases of the mind (distraction, drowsiness, and so on), and as the
symptoms of those diseases change, so the subject of one’s meditation
can be changed. For instance a person practicing with mindfulness of
breathing may find that he is being disturbed by angry thoughts: it may
become necessary then for the control of such thoughts to switch to the
meditation on loving-kindness. However, before changing the subject of
meditation, it is very helpful to get the advice of someone who is
well-established in meditation practice.

Having fixed upon one point for watching the breath, keep the mind
there. You can judge for yourself how successful you are by what happens
after this. If the mind is continuously just fixed on
“breathing-in-out” with no other sense-objects, not even of other parts
of the body, and no discursive thought, then one is doing well, for
meditation is fine and calm. If you do perceive other sense-objects, for
instance, loud or soft noises from outside, but your mind is not shaken
from the concentration, on breathing-in-out, merely having awareness of
them which returns immediately to the breathing when they cease,
without discursive thought, concentration is good. If the mind is mostly
fixed on breathing-in-out but also strays to body (touch) consciousness
elsewhere round the body but still without discursive thoughts, then it
is not so bad. But if one’s breathing-in-out-mind is frequently
disturbed by other mental states consisting of ideas, pictures, etc.,
then there is still a lot of work to do. Even if one’s meditation is up
to the first standard, there is no need for complacency as there is
plenty more to do. The more advanced aspects of meditation do require
guidance and one should make every effort to get in contact with a
reliable source of teaching.

The time that one gives to meditation must depend upon the individual
although less than 15-20 minutes is of little benefit unless the mind
is very well concentrated. Also, it is a good discipline to resolve to
practice every day and at the same time (in so far as
outside circumstances like work allow). One should not practice on some
days but not on others. This shows a wavering mind and cannot accomplish
much. And when one has determined to meditate every day one should also
resolve to practice for the same length of time each day, not
one day twenty and next only five minutes. If one’s practice is not
regular then this shows weakness of the mind and such a mind is good at
suggesting “Today it is too hot,” “Today I am too tired…” and a
thousand and one other excuses. The best time for meditation is early
morning when everything is quiet and while the mind and body are rested.
If one meditates once a day then this is the best time to do it. Some
people like to meditate twice and do some practice also in the evening.
However personal experience will soon make it clear that while hunger is
not conducive to meditation, neither is a full stomach. Tiredness may
also be a limiting factor in the evening.

The Development of Loving-kindness[15]
is another very valuable practice. It aims at the dissolution of angry,
averse states of mind and the increase of that kind of love which is
cool, capable of extension to all and non-possessive. A word here about
love. In English we have only this one word which has to describe a
great range of emotions, whereas in Pali there are several words
describing three levels.

The lowest is the one we share with the animals: lust, which is based
on powerful desires for pleasant feelings and is completely selfish.
This kind of love does not consider others at all and cares only for
self-gratification. In Pali its name is kama (a word which has
the wider, meaning also of the objective stimulants of the senses and
the defiled sensual stimulation in the heart). When there is no kama,
deliberate sexual intercourse is impossible (as for the arahants). Kama
causes sex to appear attractive and is strengthened when the senses are
not guarded. Hence the Buddha’s injunction for bhikkhus to restrain
their senses, to some extent (for instance, limiting the amount of
television that he watches, and other distracting amusements), and this
will help to limit the arising kama making for greater peace of heart.
Second is sneha, the viscous attachment which holds families
together. This love is not totally selfish but rather regards the
attachment as a bargain out of which oneself and others get something.
For instance, the husband gets home cooking while the wife obtains
security to rear a family. The terms of this bargain, of course, may
differ quite widely. But sneha is only capable of being extended to a few people who are involved in this bargain. By contrast, metta
or loving-kindness, is a love not hot with lust nor sticky with
attachment: it is cool and does not consider personal benefits. The
person who has metta is concerned with the happiness of others before he
thinks about himself. No human relationship can last long and be of
great benefit if it is not founded on metta, for only such love can be
extended to other beings generally and without limitation to some group.
Usually our relations with other people are made up of kama sometimes,
sneha frequently, with a sprinkling of metta now and again. From the
point of view of meditation practice, kama hinders it while metta helps
it.

Metta must be practiced first towards oneself. That is to say, one
cannot love others unless first one has established love in one’s own
heart. To try spreading metta to others before strengthening it in
oneself is like a poor man who proposes to give out money for others’
benefit. To have metta for oneself means a relative absence of conflicts
in oneself, to be at peace with oneself. So the first thing to do in
sitting meditation is to repeat over and over again: “May I be at
peace.” When the mind becomes calm and one can feel about one’s heart
the brightness of metta then it is possible to start practicing it
towards other people. Having cultured loving-kindness in one’s heart,
one may next picture any person whom one respects deeply and constantly
wish for that person “May he (or she) be happy!” Having developed
towards that person the same, or greater intensity of metta, then go on
to see in the mind a person with whom one is just friendly, and after
that a neutral person. Only then may one consider a person who is
disliked or even one who is hated. In each case, the emotional tone
accompanying the mental picture should be the same and only when it has
reached the same intensity should one move on to the next person to be
considered. It is useless to begin with those one dislikes as such
practice is merely the extension of what is already there — aversion —
rather than the development of something new — metta. To begin with the
disliked just wearies oneself and gets one nowhere. In this meditation,
thoughts of loving-kindness must be backed up by the emotional feeling
associated with loving-kindness, if they are to be really effective in
ridding oneself of aversion.

This power of metta is used to break down the “walls” which we erect
around ourselves, the walls of aversion and dislike, so that metta,
properly practiced, becomes by deep meditation not only widespread but
infinite in extent. One to whom each person and each living being are
equally dear, who wishes happiness for all sentient beings, visible and
invisible in every direction and state of existence, whose heart is
“endued with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted, measureless, free from
enmity and free from affliction” has truly succeeded with this practice.

But metta fails when it falls into either of two extremes. The first
of these is called “the near enemy,” that is, selfish physical desire or
kama. So one should not attempt to practice metta in meditation towards
a person for whom one has kama. The second is known as “the far enemy”
and means the opposite of metta — ill-will, anger and so on. So much for
the practice of metta as a meditation.

Besides mind, a human being has two other channels of communication —
speech and bodily action. Therefore, digressing again from what is done
in the shrine-room, one should make efforts to express loving-kindness
in these two ways as well. As far as speech is concerned, make an effort
to cut out sharp or harsh words when they are spoken in anger, while
trying to cultivate kindly speech. And as speech to be convincing has to
be backed up by bodily action, one’s body should express
loving-kindness too. See that it performs acts of helpfulness and
service. See that one is “clean-handed” — that is, that things which
could be given do not “stick” to one’s hands, for generosity is a
companion and supporter of loving-kindness. If one makes an effort like
this with one’s speech and body, it will be helpful to one’s meditation
on metta, while that in turn will ensure that one’s good actions are not
just an empty facade.

The subject of meditation is vast, as the mind with which it deals is
intricate and there are many different methods suited to different
minds with their defilements. In this brief section only two methods
have been mentioned and their development has only been outlined upon
the side of calm. The development of calm is very necessary before going
on to the development of insight, in which impermanence,
unsatisfactoriness and non-self are investigated, as the mind must be
strong and undistracted for insight to penetrate towards enlightenment.
The development of calm, cannot be dealt with here and no book, however
extensive, can replace the advice of a meditation master.

It is possible that if the mind becomes deeply concentrated and
states quite new to the meditator are suddenly experienced, that fear
may arise. Fear can also be troublesome if an object of mind comes up, a
mental picture, which is horrible to the meditator. If such fear should
arise then the meditator should leave that object and turn to the
Recollection of the Three Treasures, mentally repeating: “Indeed the
Exalted One is thus: The Accomplished destroyer of defilement…” If the
fear is banished by the first Recollection then one’s meditation can be
resumed, otherwise one should go on to recite “The Dhamma of the
Exalted One is well-expounded…” and “The Sangha of the Exalted One’s
disciples who have practiced well…” until all fear is cured in the
mind. This is sure to be dispelled as the Buddha has said, in the
Dhajagga Sutta (The Discourse on the Foremost Banner), because one is
recollecting the qualities of Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha which are “free
of greed, free of aversion and free of delusion” and are therefore free
from fear. This is where strong and sure Refuge in the three Treasures
is shown to be so valuable, for if strong confidence in them is present
fear has no chance. But the mind in which there are many doubts is
easily shaken and fear can get a hold there. Well-balanced Dhamma
practice should dispel the causes giving rise to fears, but if these
persist it is necessary to ask someone competent in meditation how they
should be treated.

At the conclusion of meditation, one should gently bring the mind
back to its usual state of engagement with the senses. During this time
the limbs should not be moved quickly but gently rubbed if they are cool
or have “gone to sleep.” when one is quite ready, then it is time to
chant the Anumodana.

Anumodana  

This is one of those words which it is very difficult to translate
into English. It means literally “rejoicing with or after” but implies
“asking beings to rejoice in the good kamma which one has made and so
benefit themselves.” It is often translated “blessing” but this gives
the wrong picture, as one is inviting other beings to rejoice at what
one has done; one is not invoking some blessing of another power upon
them.

The person who is inviting others to rejoice does not actually “share
his merits,” although this expression is often seen. How can merits (a
poor translation of puñña which means all kinds of actions which cleanse
and purify the mind of the doer) be shared indeed? As puñña is good
kamma, one should remember “I am the owner of my kamma, heir to my
kamma…” so how can it be “shared” with others? Good kamma or puñña is
not like a cake which can be cut up into pieces and handed round! What
one does is not “sharing” but dedicating one’s puñña to other beings
(either to particular beings who are suffering, such as parents,
relatives, friends, etc.; or generally to all beings (see below),
“infinite, immeasurable”). And these beings to whom one dedicates kamma
may be either living this life or else reborn in other states. In
dedicating it to them one asks them to rejoice (”By rejoicing in this
cause, this gift of puñña given by me…”) and when they do so they also
make good kamma which is the direct cause of their happiness (”a happy
life and free from hate… and their good wishes all succeed”). The
“Path Secure” mentioned in the verses below is the attainment of
stream-entry when a person has seen Nibbana for the first time, known
the Truth of Dhamma for himself and is no longer liable to fall into
low, subhuman births.

These verses are part of a longer Pali composition by King
Mahamongkut (Rama IV) of Siam, possibly written while he was still a
prince and bhikkhu holding the position of Abbot of Wat Bovoranives in
Bangkok.

May the puñña made by me,
now or at some other time,
be shared among all beings here —
infinite, immeasurable,
By rejoicing in this cause,
this gift of puñña given by me,
may beings all forever live
a happy life and free from hate,
and may they find the Path Secure
and their good wishes all succeed!

Having finished this recitation one should stay quiet with a heart
full of loving-kindness for all beings just for a short while. Then to
conclude the service one again makes the prostration with five limbs
three times.

Chanting  

In Theravada Buddhist countries, the traditional verses and passages,
as well as the Discourses of the Buddha, whether used in services or
for other occasions, are usually recited in Pali, the language spoken by
the Buddha. In each country there are somewhat different traditions of
chanting and pronunciation of Pali.[16]
(In other Buddhist lands also, traditions exist for the chanting of
Buddhist scriptures, usually in a special and now archaic form of the
vernaculars). Besides the established traditions of Pali chanting, there
are also, in countries like Thailand, ways of chanting in the language
of the people. Few lay people understand the grammar of Pali though many
may know a number of important phrases and terms in that language, so
we find that lay people (and sometimes bhikkhus as well) chant in Pali
following each phrase with a translation in the vernacular. This can
often be heard in Thailand where school children also chant verses
composed in Thai on the respect that should be given to the Buddha,
Dhamma, Sangha, parents and teachers (the Five Treasures).

In countries where Buddhism is either newly introduced or again
flourishing after a period of neglect, there may be very few who
understand Pali, while, on the other hand, many may wish for some
devotional and reflective practice for their daily lives. Hence the
short number of texts suggested here are all in English. Then comes the
question of how to chant in this language. Lay Buddhists can be guided
by the Buddha’s words when some bhikkhus began to sing the Dhamma:

From these five disadvantages we understand that it is disrespectful
for a bhikkhu to sing or intone the Dhamma in such a way that its
meaning is lost.[17]
This rule, of course, does not apply to lay people but in Buddhist
lands the latter, perhaps guided by the conduct of bhikkhus, have made
little or no use of music for religious purposes. After all what are we
trying to achieve by chanting the words relating to the Buddha and his
teaching? Is it not to gain calm through a mind concentrated on Dhamma?
Then music has rather an exciting effect on many people and so is
opposed to our aim. Again, compared with western religion, Buddhism has a
different aim. There, the object of chanting and singing is to make
sounds pleasing to the Creator’s ear, out of love or fear of him. But
Buddhists are not burdened with such an idea, for our aim and goal lies
within, to be attained by our own efforts, not by propitiation of an
external power. Lord Buddha was one who spoke in praise of silence and
restraint, so in preparing ourselves to be silent, restraint should be
used in our chanting.

The various passages which have been recommended here for this
purpose are embedded in much explanatory matter and people who wish to
use them and any other reflections which they have found stirring, could
copy them all out to form a chanting book.[18] Then only one thing remains to be done and that will come about through daily use: learn these texts by heart. Even if one is far from home one can then quietly repeat them to oneself and so not break one’s regular practice.

In the various Buddhist countries there is a great variety of chants
and recollections and even neighboring monasteries may have their own
traditions and not use all the same items. Those given here in English
translation are among the most popular and common to most traditions.
Others can be added according to individual preference and knowledge.
There is no such thing as a standard morning and evening service in the
Buddhist world and even between these two there may be differences of
items used. So much for daily practice in the shrine room.

The Laity’s Practice of Dhamma  

Then what about Dhamma-practice outside the shrine-room? This is
really a subject which goes beyond the scope of this book. All the
important aspects of a layman’s practice of the Dhamma have been written
about in other books. However, mention may be made of these things:

Dana (Giving)

The giving of material things (amisa-dana), for instance, to support
bhikkhus, to give to the poor, starving and so forth. There is no lack
of opportunity to practice this in our over-populated world. And
Buddhists who have enough of this world’s wealth, enough of clothes,
food, shelter and medicine which are the basic necessities for life
should practice dana bearing in mind that what is given away is truly
well preserved while what is kept is wasted. The practice, running
counter to the worldly way of craving and attachment, is very important
in the present materialistic civilization with its emphasis upon gain
and accumulation of possessions. Nothing much can be done in Dhamma
until one is prepared to open one’s heart and one’s hands to others.

The giving of Dhamma (Dhamma-dana) means the gift of some useful
teaching and advice for others. It is necessary to know what will
benefit them if one would give this gift in the right way. Dhamma is the
supreme gift in the world, as said by the Buddha:

All gifts the gift of Dhamma does excel,
all tastes the taste of dhamma does excel,
all joys the joy of Dhamma does excel —
the craving-ender overcomes all dukkha.

All material things wear out with use but the Dhamma increases as we
practice it. And material things give benefit only in this life, while
the Dhamma benefits the practice now and in future lives as well.

The giving of non-fear (abhaya-dana). This means acting in such a way
that other beings do not have any cause to fear oneself. This is
another name for the practice of loving-kindness (metta) and is based
upon good moral conduct (sila).

Sila (Moral Conduct, Precepts)[19]

The Five Sila have been mentioned above. The Eight Sila will be dealt
with in connection with the Uposatha day (below). Besides these lists
of precepts which are guides to good conduct, one should study those
discourses of the Buddha, like the Singalovada (The Exhortation to
Singala — see Everyman’s Ethics,
Wheel 14) in which he has given the principles which will conduce to a
harmonious society. This must be founded upon wholesome mental states in
the individual and for this the following practices are essential:

Bhavana (Development or cultivation of the mind)

The four Divine Abidings: Loving-kindness, compassion,
joy-with-others, and equanimity, bring two blessings: harmony within and
peace with other people. Their importance in Buddhist practice cannot
be over-emphasized. They are the educators of the heart or emotions and
from a Buddhist point of view it will be better to be gentle and
non-aggressive though lacking intellectual knowledge of Dhamma. Such a
person shows that he has been tamed by the Dhamma of non-harming, but
mere knowledge of the Dhamma divorced from practice makes only for
conceit and an increase of views (ditthi).

Reading the Suttas in translation, especially the Anguttara-nikaya (see the anthology in two parts with this title from BPS, Kandy, and Gradual Sayings,
the complete translation in 5 vols. from the Pali Text Society London),
will bring to light many discourses containing valuable advice for lay
Buddhist practice. It would be useful to collect these together and then
read them through from time to time. A reading of such relevant suttas
might be introduced into the evening service every day, or else read
upon Uposatha days. This brings us to the subject of the second part of
this book.